<& s. a a, © = p §? OQ So _© "3 o Ed — •«: x as Ed Ea O O OQ o Oh — "6, a Ed ED 4/ O be Data of Geochemistry A#/A Edition Chapter G. Chemical Composition of Rivers and Lakes GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 440-G u: Data of Geochemistry Sixth Edition MICHAEL FLEISCHER, Technical Editor Chapter G. Chemical Composition of Rivers and Lakes By DANIEL A. LIVINGSTONE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 440-G Oi 1 = _l = CD- SI i -D j 3- i r-=l ; cd ■ □ i a : m D UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Thomas B. Nolan, Director For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY, SIXTH EDITION Michael Fleischer, Technical Editor The first edition of the Data of Geochemistry, by F. W. Clarke, was published in 1908 as U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 330. Later editions, also by Clarke, were published in 1911, 1916, 1920, and 1924 as Bulletins 491, 616, 695, and 770. This, the sixth edition, has been written by several scientists in the Geological Survey and in other institutions in the United States and abroad, each preparing a chapter on his special field. The current edition is being published in individual chapters, titles of which are listed below. Chapters already published are indicated by boldface. Chapter A. The chemical elements B. Cosmochemistry C. Internal structure and composition of the Earth D. Composition of the earth's crust E. Chemistry of the atomsphere F. Chemical composition of subsurface waters, by Donald E. White, John D. Hem, and G. A. Waring G. Chemical composition of rivers and lakes, by Daniel A. Livingstone H. Chemistry of the oceans I. Geochemistry of the biosphere J. Chemistry of rock-forming minerals K. Volcanic emanations, by Donald E. White and G. A. Waring L. Phase equilibrium relations of the common rock-forming oxides except water M. Phase equilibrium relations of the common rock-forming oxides with water and (or) carbon dioxide N. Chemistry of igneous rocks O. Chemistry of rock weathering and soils P. Chemistry of bauxites and Iaterites Q. Chemistry of nickel silicate deposits R. Chemistry of manganese oxides S. Chemical composition of sandstones, excluding carbonate and volcanic sands, by F. J. Pettijohn T. Nondetrital siliceous sediments, by Earle R. Cressman U. Chemical composition of shales and related rocks V. Chemistry of carbonate rocks W. Chemistry of iron-rich rocks X. Chemistry of phosphorites Y. Marine evaporites, by Frederick H. Stewart Z. Continental evaporites AA. Chemistry of coal BB. Chemistry of petroleum, natural gas, and miscellaneous carbonaceous substances CC. Chemistry of metamorphic rocks DD. Abundance and distribution of the chemical elements and their isotopes EE. Geochemistry of ore deposits FF. Physical chemistry of sulfide systems GG. The natural radioactive elements HH. Geochronology II. Temperatures of geologic processes JJ. Composition of fluid inclusions m CONTENTS Paga Abstract Gl Introduction 1 Acknowledgments 1 Isotopic composition of lake and river water 2 Chemical composition of lake and river water 3 Nature and causes of variations in composition 3 General analyses 11 North America 11 St. Lawrence River basin 11 Atlantic Coast drainage 12 Eastern tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico.. 14 Mississippi River drainage 14 Rio Grande basin 15 Colorado River basin 15 North American closed basins 15 Columbia River basin and other northwest- ern waters 18 Alaska waters 18 Mackenzie and Hudson Bay drainages 19 West Greenland 20 Eurasia. 20 New Zealand 27 Australia 28 Africa 31 South America 36 Global computations 37 North America 38 Europe 38 Asia 39 Africa 39 Australia 39 South America 40 World summary 40 Mean chemical composition of World river water 40 Page Chemical compositon of lake and river water — Con. Minor constituents G41 General remarks 41 Fluorine, bromine, and iodine 41 Boron 42 Lithium 43 Rubidium 43 Cesium 44 Beryllium 44 Strontium 44 Barium 44 Radium 45 Selenium 45 Arsenic, antimony, and bismuth 45 The rare gases 46 Gallium 46 Gold 46 Mercury 46 Cadmium 47 Copper 47 Cobalt and nickel 47 Silver 48 Zinc 48 Titanium 49 Zirconium 49 Tin 49 Lead 49 Vanadium 49 Chromium 49 Molybdenum 50 Manganese 50 Uranium 50 Radioactive isotopes 51 Stable isotopes 51 Organic matter 51 Bibliography 52 Index 63 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Figure 1. Mean daily supply of chloride and sulfate plus nitrate in relation to wind direction. After Gorham, 1958 G4 2. Relation of specific conductance to mean daily runoff of the Saline River. After Durum, 1953 5 3. Seasonal changes in the chemical composition of Imikpuk, near the Arctic Ocean. After Boyd, 1959 9 4. Diurnal pH changes in a small fresh-water lake. After Schiitle and Elsworth, 1954 9 5. Diurnal oxygen change in Silver Springs, Florida. After Odum, 1956 9 6. Redox potential near the mud-water interface and concentrations of dissolved substances in the water just over the mud surface of Esthwaite Water, England, during 1940. After Mortimer, 1941-42 11 v VI CONTENTS TABLES Page Table 1. Oxygen-18 content of lakes and rivers G2 2. Deuterium content of lakes and rivers 3 3. Tritium content of lakes and rivers 3 4. Moreau River at Bixby, S. Dak., showing changes in chemical composition of a stream in a semiarid region.. 4 5. Mayo River near Price, N.C 5 6-43. Analyses of water: 6. From the St. Lawrence River basin 12 7. From the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River 12 8. From the Atlantic Coast drainage in Canada 13 9. From the Atlantic Coast drainage in the northern United States 13 10. From the Atlantic Coast drainage in the southern United States 13 11. From the eastern tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico 14 12. From the Ohio River, main stem 14 13. From the Ohio drainage of the Mississippi system 14 14. From the northwestern part of the Mississippi system 15 15. From the lower Mississippi River and its tributaries 15 16. From the Rio Grande and its tributaries 16 17. From west Texas and Mexico 16 18. From the Colorado River system and the Sacramento River 16 19. From the Basin-Range province and adjacent closed basins 17 20. From the Devil's Lake basin, North Dakota 17 21. From concentrated lakes in British Columbia ._ 17 22. From closed lakes of Saskatchewan 18 23. From the Columbia River system 18 24. Some other northwestern waters 19 25. Alaskan waters 19 26. From the Mackenzie drainage 20 27. From the Hudson Bay drainage 21 28. From lakes in continental west Greenland 21 29. From Portugal 22 30. From Shropshire meres, England 22 31. Miscellaneous, from England 22 32. From Scotland 22 33. From western Ireland 22 34. From rivers in Britain 23 35. From west Europe 23 36. From the Rhine and the Elbe and their tributaries 24 37. From Central Europe 24 38. From Estonia, Sweden, and Norway 24 39. River water from the U.S.S.R 24 40. Further, river water from the U.S.S.R 25 41. Miscellaneous lake waters from the U.S.S.R 25 42. From Crimean salt lakes 25 43. From Kazakhstan 26 44. Average ionic composition of river water in the territory of the U.S.S.R 26 45-74. Analyses of water: 45. From Akita Prefecture, Japan __ 26 46. From the Kanto districts, Japan 27 47. Miscellaneous, from Japan 28 48. From southeast Asia 28 49. From India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan 29 50. From Iran and Turkey 29 51. From the Dead Sea system 30 52. Some lake waters from New Zealand 30 53. From the Northeastern Highland, Victoria 30 54. From saline streams in western Victoria 30 55. From Tasmania 30 56. Reservoir waters from South Australia 31 57. Miscellaneous, from Australia 31 58. From the Nile system 32 CONTENTS VII Tables 45-7-1. Analyses of water — Continued Page 59. From East African lakes G33 60. From Northern Rhodesia and adjacent Tanganyika 33 61 . From Somalia 33 62. From Moza mbique 34 63. From Angola 34 64. From the Congo River basin 34 65. From Nigeria 35 66. From Colony, Ghana 35 67. From Ashanti, Ghana 35 68. From Northern Territories, Ghana 35 69. From French West Africa 36 70. From Algeria 36 71 . From Venezuela 36 72. Miscellaneous South American waters 37 73. From the Amazon River and its tributaries 37 74. From rivers in the southern part of South America 37 75-SO. Discharge and chemical denudation: 75. Of North America 38 76. Of Europe 39 77. Of Asia 39 78. Of Africa ." 39 79. Of Australia 40 80. Of South America 40 81. Mean composition of river waters of the world 41 82. Bromine and iodine content of river and lake waters 42 83. Boron content of lakes and rivers 43 84. Lithium content of lake and river waters 43 85. Strontium content of lakes and rivers 44 S6. Radium content of lakes and rivers 45 87. Arsenic content of lake and river waters 45 88. Argon content of lake water 46 89. Copper content of lakes and rivers 47 90. Cobalt and nickel content of lakes and rivers 48 91. Uranium content of lakes and rivers 51 92. Some singly occurring natural radioisotopes of elements that are chemically detectable in lakes and rivers.. 51 93. Proximate composition of dissolved organic matter from Wisconsin lake waters containing varying amounts of total organic carbon 52 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES By Daniel A. Livingstone DUKE UNIVERSITY, DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA ABSTRACT This paper is a compilation of representative chemical data, many previously unpublished, for the lake and river waters of the world. The rate of chemical denudation for the continents of the world ranges from 6 long tons per square mile for Aus- tralia to 110 long tons per square mile for Europe. The rivers of the world deliver 3.9 billion tons of dissolved material to the sea each year, and the average concentration of the important constituents in parts per million is: bicarbonate 58.4, sulfate 11.2, chloride 7.8, nitrate 1.0, calcium 15.0, magnesium 4.1, sodium 6.3, potassium, 2.3, iron 0.67, and silica 13.1, for a total of 120 ppm of dissolved solids. Although these 10 constituents account for most of the dissolved material, all but 37 of the naturally occurring elements have been detected in lake or river water. The principal gaps in geochemical data for lakes and rivers are long-term downstream averages for the general com- position of large tropical rivers and trace-element analyses for large rivers everywhere. INTRODUCTION Atmospheric precipitation is the principal source of the water substance that makes up lakes and rivers on the earth's surface. This is not pure water, but is in equilibrium with atmospheric gases, and in addition contains some dissolved and suspended mineral matter, part of which is the original nucleus of crystal or droplet condensation, and part taken up by the crystal or droplet during its passage through the atmosphere. Although a headwater stream or a lake with a small catchment area, particularly in regions of relatively insoluble rocks, may contain water that is almost identical in chemical composition with rain water, it is usual for lakes and rivers to contain much more sus- pended and dissolved material than this. As water percolates through the soil, it attacks the mineral constituents physically and chemically, leaching out the more soluble fractions. This water ultimately finds its way into rivers with more or less delay in basins filled with standing water, while evaporation from the water surface tends to increase the salt concentration in the water. More salts may be leached out of the 643S62 — 63 2 suspended material in the stream, or, alternatively, salts may be removed from the water by the suspended or bottom material through a variety of sorptive processes. Organisms living in the water may take up dissolved material, particularly nutrients such as phosphate, nitrate, and silicate (Lund, 1950) that tend to be in short supply, and drastically reduce its con- centration in the water. At intervals large numbers of these organisms may die, suddenly releasing their con- centrates into the waters around them, and producing a local and temporary concentration of the elements characteristic of protoplasm. Because of these changes, a river or lake is a complex dynamic system. Its chemistry cannot be adequately described in terms of static analysis, but must include some information about the potentialities of the system as well as information about the composition of its water at a particular moment. Investigation of these chemical potentialities is much more time consuming than chemical analysis of a single water sample and for some practical purposes it is not necessary, but the serious shortage of attempts to measure it introduces grave uncertainties into the geochemical data for this part of the biosphere. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This review was prepared during tenure of three National Science Foundation grants and during part- time employment with the U.S. Geological Survey. A very large part of the basic data for lakes and rivers lies in unpublished files and reports. In searching for this material I had the aid of water chemists in many parts of the world and of a large part of the world's governmental quality-of-water agencies. I am very grateful for the help they freely and unstintingly gave. An especial debt of gratitude is due to the following people and organizations who have provided unpub- lished analyses for inclusion in this volume: Dr. Eville Gl G2 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Gorham; Dr. Jun Kobayashi; Dr. D. S. Rawson; Dr. Sirn6n Visser; the Laboratdrio de Analises Fisico- quimicas e Micrograficas, Campanhia' das Aguas de Lisboa; the Afghanistan Geological Survey; the Geo- logical Survey of Pakistan; the Tehran Water Board; the Hydro-Electric Commission, Hobart, Tasmania; the South Australian Engineering and Water Supply Department, Adelaide; the Government Chemical Laboratories, Perth, Australia; the Ammistrazione Fiduciaria Italiana della Somalia; Reparticao Tecnica de Industria e Geologica, Provincia de Mocambique; Reparticao Central dos Servicos de Geologia e Minas, Provincia de Angola; the Chemistry Division, Ministry of Health, Kaduna, Nigeria; the Federal Department of Chemistry, Lagos, Nigeria; the Service Geologique, French West Africa; the Service des Etudes Scien- tifiques, Ministere de l'Algerie; the Direcion de Geol- ogia, Ministerio de Minas e Hidrocarburos, Venezuela ; Ministerio de Fomento y obras Publicas, Peru; and my colleagues in the U.S. Geological Survey, particu- larly Dr. W. H. Durum and the water chemists working in California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. Very generous linguistic assistance was provided by Dr. J. R. Bailey, Dr. Humio Osaki, and Dr. Athos Ottolenghi. Miss Eveline Bowers, Miss Helen Oyler, and Mr. Emerson Ford helped with bibliographic prob- lems. Dr. F. B. Barker, Dr. Walter Durum, Dr. Eville Gorham, and Dr. John D. Hem have read the manuscript and made many helpful criticisms. Since beginning this review 5 years ago I have had the unfailing sup- port and encouragement of my wife, Bertha, who has also helped to revise the manuscript and check the tables. During the same time Dr. Michael Fleischer has helped me in every way that an editor could — finding obscure papers, preparing translations from Russian, discussing general questions of geochemistry, providing kind words of encouragement when the lit- erature search seemed endless, and gently exercising editorial restraint. ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF LAKE AND RIVER WATER In addition to the variation in the suspended and dis- solved load of lake and river water, there is a consider- able variation in the composition of the pure water sub- stance itself. It has long been known that there are variations in the density of pure water from natural sources, and in the last few years a number of studies of the isotopic composition of natural water samples have been made. Mass spectrography has permitted the determination of the stable isotopes, while low- background counting methods have permitted the assay of even the short-lived mass-three isotope of hydrogen. Oxygen-17 does not appear to have been measured in natural waters. In air and commercial oxygen the 18 /0 17 ratio is 4.9 ±0.2 (Murphey, 1941), so the natural variations in oxygen-17 content of water are probably barely measurable with present mass-spectrographic methods. Oxygen- 18 has been measured by a number of investigators, each referring the results to some arbi- trary standard. The largest body of results referred to a single standard appears to be that of Dansgaard (see table 1), who used a Danish oxygen standard with 0.1950 atom-percent of oxygen-18. It appears from the data, which are reproduced in table 1, that the 18 /0 16 ratio is higher in climates where there is a great deal of post-precipitational evaporation, leading to a loss of the lighter isotope. Table 1. — Oxygen-18 content of lakes and rivers [Analyses by Dansgaard (1954). The reference used was a Danish COa standard with 0.1950 atoms percent of Oi»] Locality Pasig River, Manila, Philippine Islands River water, Minglasulla, Cebu, Philippine Islands. Water fall, Maxwill, Taiping, Malaya Waterfall Gardens, Penang Me-Yome River, Prae, Siam River water, Bangkok Hoogly River, Ganges Ravi River, Madhopur, Pakistan Little Fugela, Winterton, Natal Seven Mile Stream, Hilton Road, Natal Ukamba Stream, Natal National Park Mulunguzi Stream, Zoniba Plateau, Nyasaland- Namadzi Stream, Nyondtwe Perana River, Posadas Misiones, Argentina River wate., San Nicolas, Buenos Aires Lugan River, Delta of Tigra _ _ San Juan River, Rosario, Santa Fe, N. Mex.. Lake Nahuel, Huapsi, Neuguen, Argentina.. Lake at West Vancouver, Canada Mosquito Creek, North Vancouver, Canada. River water, Salta, Argentina Do. _ Red River, Godhavn, Greenland Date Aug. 7, 1953 July 19,1953 Aug. 1, 1953 June 29,1953 Sept. 30, 1953 Aug. 12,1953 July 8, 1953 Jan. 14,1954 Jan. 31,1954 Jan. 14,1954 June 7, 1953 June 14,1953 Oct. 0, 1953 Oct. 13,1953 Oct. 12,1953 Sept. 11,1953 Sept. 8,1953 June 19,1953 June 19,1953 Nov. 20, 1953 Nov. 20, 1953 NOV. 20, 1952 0'» atoms/ 10W atoms 19.82 19.73 19.74 19.77 19.72 19.71 19.72 19.77 19.81 19.82 19.82 19.79 19.75 19.80 19.78 19.82 19.92 19.70 19.68 19.67 19.58 19.60 19.58 A large number of analyses for deuterium given by Friedman are reproduced in table 2. It is evident that evaporational fractionation is involved here. In another study, Clarke and others (1954) found that the deuterium content of Thames water was near the oceanic value. The slight evaporative enrichment in the oceanic Thames basin appears to be sufficient to equal the impoverishment during evaporation from the ocean. Tritium, though much less abundant, can be measured because it is a beta-emitter. Libby has summarized his data on the tritium content of fresh waters of the world, and they are presented in table 3. This isotope has a half-life of 12 years and the time since leaving the atmosphere, as well as the partition due to evaporation or melting, determines its concentration in natural waters. Some early measurements of water density are of interest in connection with isotope concentration. For example, it has been claimed that the water in the CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G3 depths of Lake Baikal (Mendelejev, 1935, Ingerson, 1953) is somewhat denser than surface water, but the isotopes concerned have not been measured. In view of the very considerable body of evidence for vertical mixing in Lake Baikal (Tolmachev, 1957a, 1957b), this result must be viewed with suspicion until such time as it has been verified by mass-spectrometric methods. Table 2. — Deuterium content of lakes and rivers [The working standard contained 0.0148±0.0001 mole percent deuterium. Recalcu- lated from Friedman (1953)] Locality Columbia River, Trail, British Columbia. Violin Lake, Trail, British Columbia Do Do Juneau Glacier, 235 ft below surface Juneau Glacier, 155 ft below surface Grasshopper Glacier, Park County, Mont Salt Lake boat harbor, Great Salt Lake, Utah. Gullmar Fjord, west coast of Sweden Mississippi River, Baton Rouge, La— Mississippi River, Clinton, Iowa Platte River near Ashland, Nebr • St. Lawrence River, Ogdensburg, N.Y ' Susquehanna River at Marietta, Pa 1 Apalachicola River, Chattachoochee, Fla '_ Sacramento River, Verona, Calif i San Joaquin River, Vernalis, Calif 1 Connecticut River, Thompsonville, Conn. Ohio River, Louisville, Ky Arkansas River, Van Buren, Ark Rio Grande near Mission, Tex Missouri River, Kansas City, Mo Red River near Colbert, Okla Red River of the North, Oslo, Minn > Colorado River at Yuma, Ariz Snake River near Clarkston, Wash ■ Roanoke River near Scotland Neck, N. C Monongahela River, near Morgantown, W. Va. Date July 17, 1943.. June 26, 1944.. Nov. 6, 1943... Sept. 23, 1943. -Aug. 19, 1948. Apr. 29, 1952., May 3, 1948- June 2, 1948.. May 7, 1948- June 11, 1948. May 29, 1948. July 7, 1948... June 17, 1948. June4, 1948. . June 3, 1948. . Apr. 1-30, 1948... June 12, 1948 March-April 1948 July 12, 1948 June 4, 1948 June 17, 1948.. Mar. 26, 1943. Atoms H*/ 10' atoms Hi 13.3 13.5 13.5 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.2 14.1 15.1 14.9 U4. 6 U4.9 '14. 9 1 14.8 ■15.4 ■14.6 U4. 5 14.5 14.8 15.3 15.3 13.8 15.3 114.8 13.8 1 13.9 15.0 14.6 ■ Craig and Boato (1955, p. 406) say that these determinations must be discarded, the containers being faulty and evaporation having occurred. Density measurements are more valuable as in- dicators of problems to be investigated by more re- fined tools than as sources of hydrologic information. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LAKE AND RIVER WATER NATURE AND CAUSES OF VARIATIONS IN COMPOSITION River water is extremely variable in chemical com- position. To begin with, there may be a considerable variation in the chemistry of the rainwater that is falling on a river basin. Gorham (1958) has studied the chemistry of the daily precipitation in the lake district of England over a period of 1 year and has found variation in the concentration and composition of the salts in rainwater depending on the previous history of the air mass from which it falls (fig. 1). After deposition there is more or less concentration of the salt content by evaporation of moisture from the surface of the drainage basin. This produces Table 3. — Tritium content of lakes and rivers [Analyses from Libby (1955)] Locality Mississippi River, St. Louis, Mo. Do Do Do Do Do. Do. Mississippi River, Rock Island, EL. Do Do Do- Do.. Do- Mississippi River, Memphis, Term Mississippi River, New Orleans, La.. Sangamon River, Decatur, El. Arkansas River, Conway, Ark River Elbe, Hamburg, Germany- River Weser, Bremen, Germany.. River Rhone, Lyons, France River Main near Wiirzburg, Germany River Loire, Digoin, France Stream near Cambridge, England, about 1 mile below spring source River Donau, near Ulm, Germany River Mosel, near Metz, France River Seine, near Nogent, France River Fulda, near Kassel, Germany - River Rhine, between Geisenheim and Riides- heim River Marne, Joinville, France Shasta Dam, Calif El Rito de los Frijoles, Jemez Mountains, N. Mex Rio Grande, northwest of Santa Fe, N. Mex Winsor Creek, just above junction with Pecos, Cowles, N. Mex Rio Guajataca at Lares, Puerto Rico Rio Arecibo at Utuado, Puerto Rico River Tomokoa, Fla., on Route 92 near Daytona Beach Alafia River, Fla., on route 60 about 20 miles east of Tampa _._ Mean of three samples of University of Chicago tap water, believed to be representative of Lake Michigan Lake behind Shasta Dam, Calif Effluent from Schoharie Reservoir, Allaben, N.Y... Roundout Reservoir, Palisades, N.Y Date 19SS Jan. 31 Feb. 4 Feb. 10 Feb. 20 Mar. 17 Apr. 17 July 22 Jan. 29 Feb. 6 Feb. 24 Mar. 16 Apr. 17 June 30 Feb. 4 Feb. 8 19SS Aug. 6 19S8 Mar. 20 Aug. 31 Sept. 1 Sept. 10 Sept. 13 Sept. 9 Sept. 12. Sept. 7- Sept. 8- Sept. 24. Sept. 7— Sept. 8_. Jan. 30. 1964 Feb. 7.. Feb. 7_ Feb. 22_. Mar. 2.. Mar. 2.. Mar. 19. Mar. 22. Before Feb. 15.. Feb. 6.. Feb. 6.. Atoms H»/10i» atoms Hi 5.6 ±0.6 4. 5 ±0. 6 6. ±0. 9 6. 4 ±0. 6 5.4 ±2.4 6.0 ±0.4 7. 3 ±0. 4 2.5 ±0.3 3.7 ±0.4 4. 4 ±0. 2 3.2 ±0.2 5.3 ±0.3 7. 2 ±0. 7 6.0 ±1.0 4.7 ±0.3 1.15±0.08 3. 12±0. 10 2. 67±0. 12 1. 76±0. 10 2. 64±0. 16 1.76±0.19 2.11±0.14 1. 25±0. 10 2. 13±0. 38 2. 15±0. 12 1. 80±0. 3 2. 35±0. 1 2.1 ±0.2 2.1 ±0.2 2. 7 ±0.1 27. 2±0. 4 6.6 ±0.2 9. 9 ±0. 2 0. 7 ±0. 2 1.1 ±0.2 45.4±0.6 60 ±3 1.64±0.04 2. 7 ±0. 15 8.4 ±0.3 7.2 ±0.3 variations in chemical content not only from basin to basin, but also from time to time. The most important factor introducing temporal variability into river-water chemistry, however, seems to be the relative contribution of ground water and sur- face runoff, as they are affected by changes in discharge. In general, the contribution of ground water to a river tends to be relatively stable, but the contribution of surface runoff tends to be variable. When rainfall on the basin has been light or absent for some pro- tracted period of time, the nourishment of the stream is almost entirely by ground water. When rainfall is heavy, and particularly when it is concentrated in short periods of time, the nourishment of the swollen stream may be almost entirely by runoff. Ground water, by its long-standing intimate contact with rocks G4 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY N Fiodke 1.— Mean daily supply of chloride and sulfate plus nitrate in relation to wind direction. The inner and outer circles delimit 50 and 100 meq/100 m*, respectively. High chloride is characteristic of winds from a southwesterly direction, that is, from the sea, whereas sulfate and nitrate are high in winds blowing from the in- dustrial regions lying cast and southeast of the station in the English Lake district where the rain was collected. After Gorham (1958). Reprinted by permission of the Eoyal Society, London. and mineral soil, is usually much more concentrated than surface runoff, the more so because it is usually in contact with the mineral material of the soil under conditions of oxygen and carbon dioxide tension that are particularly favorable to the solution of many mineral components. As a result, the concentration of dissolved matter of river water usually bears an in- verse relation to discharge, although the relation is seldom simple. The water of heavy rains has less opportunity to be concentrated by evaporation and is usually less concentrated to begin with than the water of light showers. These combined effects cause rivers at high stage to be less concentrated than rivers at low stage. Although it is usually difficult to separate the various concentration processes, their net effects are usually greatest in arid lands. For example, the Moreau River, S. Dak., with an annual discharge of 2 inches over the 1,570 square miles of its drainage basin, has a total ion content that ranges from 160 to 3,400 ppm (parts per million) during a single year. Monthly analyses for the principal elements are given in table 4. This may be contrasted with a range from 36 to 57 ppm for Mayo River, N.C. (table 5), from a humid region with an annual discharge of 17 inches over the 260 square miles of its drainage basin. It is impossible to appreciate the full extent of the de- pendence of river chemistry on discharge from the comparison of monthly means, which smooth out the more dramatic fluctuations. Complete data do not appear to be available for any stream showing violent Table 4. — Moreau River at Bixby, S. Dak., showing changes in chemical composition of a stream in a semiarid region [The drainage area above the sampling station is 1,670 square miles and the data, which cover the water year October 1949-September 1950, have been recalculated from U.S. Geol. Survey (1955b)] Date of Sample 1949 Oct. 1-3 Oct. 4-12 Oct. 13-28 Oct. 27-31 Nov. 1-30 Dec. 1-21 1950 Mar. 6-9 Mar. 10 Mar. 14-Apr. 1... Apr. 3 Apr. 4-6 Apr. 7. Apr. 11-14 Apr. 15-17 Apr. 18-20 Apr. 21 Apr. 22-26 Apr. 27 Apr. 28-May 15— May 16-31 June 1-30 July 1-31 Aug. 1-6 Aug. 6-8 Aug. 9-31 Sept. 1-19 Sept. 20-24 Sept. 25-30 Mean discharge (cfs) 3.2 16 7.0 8.0 4.1 3.2 123 100 126 2,900 2,800 6,690 1.260 7,600 1,350 363 280 160 470 45 30 14 4.1 76 6.7 4.6 34 6.2 pH 8.9 8.9 8.5 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.4 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.4 7.2 7.4 7.5 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.6 8.0 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 8.3 8.3 7.8 Percent SiOi 0.2 .3 1.3 1.0 3.0 1.5 3 2 8.1 6.4 5.4 5.0 5.6 3.1 2.1 2.1 1.5 2.0 1.6 .6 2.1 .7 1.9 .7 Fe 0.002 .002 .010 .005 .005 .002 .003 .004 .009 .015 .027 .011 .014 .005 .007 .003 .004 .002 .001 .002 .002 .002 .024 .004 .003 .054 .004 Ca 0.5 .6 1.7 1.9 2.3 1.3 3.0 4.4 4.9 7.5 9.2 10.1 9.1 8.2 9.1 8.6 6.7 7.3 7.2 6.6 3.8 4.6 2.1 3.1 1.8 1.4 2.1 1.8 Mg 1.0 .6 .5 .2 .6 .9 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.1 2.5 3.2 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.6 4.6 2.6 1.6 .7 .8 1.1 .4 Na 0.3 .2 .5 .4 .9 .8 1.1 3.2 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 .9 .8 .6 .7 .6 .5 .5 .5 .9 .5 .4 .7 .6 COj 2.6 3.2 1.7 1.7 1.2 1.2 HC0 3 SOt CI 0.9 .7 .6 .6 .6 .6 .7 1.9 .7 .3 1.2 .7 .7 .9 .6 .6 .7 .6 .6 .6 .9 1.1 .7 0.02 .02 .03 .02 .02 .01 NOj 0.05 .08 .22 .09 .06 .02 .39 .40 .64 2.73 .80 .64 .61 .37 .66 .26 .28 .14 .18 .14 .07 .06 .07 .63 .15 .08 .26 .08 0.02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .01 .02 .06 .04 .03 .03 .04 .03 .04 .02 .02 .01 .01 .01 .01 .02 .06 .03 .03 .04 .00 Total ions (ppm) 3,400 2,430 1.200 1,450 1,740 3,810 540 890 410 160 250 300 340 270 390 540 610 810 800 1,170 2,000 1,800 1,890 660 1,430 1,760 920 1,440 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G5 100 -f 10 EXPLANATION Discharge Conductance -v' V t"\ s^\ ' > - V 1/ V OCT NOV DEC FEB Figtjke 2.— Relation of specific conductance to mean daily runoff of the Saline River near Russell, Kansas, during part of 1946 and 1947. After Durum (1953). Re- printed by permission of the American Geophysical Union. fluctuations of discharge on a daily basis, but daily measurements of specific conductivity are available for many rivers in the United States. An example is provided by the Saline River, Kans., in figure 2. In addition to these temporal variations in the chemistry of rivers, there are also spatial ones. It has been known for a long time that the content of dis- solved matter of river water tends to increase from source to mouth. This tendency is particularly marked in regions of interior drainage, but it is also present in rivers emptying into the sea. A further complication is introduced by heterogeneities in river water at any particular level in the drainage profile. When two rivers meet, or when large amounts of chemically different water are introduced into a river in some other way, for example, by a large spring or a sewage outflow, there may not be complete mixing for a long distance downstream, as Heide (1952) has shown. In any large river system the composition of the dissolved salts is different in the various head-water tributaries, but these local irregularities, which reflect variations in the nature of the rocks in the various parts of the drainage system, tend to cancel each other as one proceeds downstream, and there is a tendency for the composition of the water in the down- stream parts of rivers to resemble one another. This has led to the concept of a general or mean composition of river water (Rodhe, 1949) and to some speculation that ion-exchange reactions with the suspended load or Table 5. — Mayo River near Price, N.C. [Drainage area above sampling station 260 square miles. Note the relatively small variations In water chemistry of this humid-climate stream with rather constant discharge. Data from U.S. Oeol. Survey (1954b)] Date 1949 Oct. 1-10 Oct. 11-20 Oct. 21-31 Nov. 1-10 Nov. 11-20 Nov. 21-30 Dec. 1-10 Dec. 11-20 Dec. 21-30 1950 Jan. 1-10 Jan. 11-20 Jan. 21-31 Feb. 1-10 Feb. 11-19 Feb. 20-28 Mar. 1-10 Mar. 11-20 Mar. 21-31 Apr. 1-10 Apr. 11-20 Apr. 21-30 May 1-10 May 11-20 May 21-31 June 1-10 June 11-20 June 21-30 July 1-10 July 11-20 July 21-31 Aug. 1-10 Aug. 11-20 Aug. 21-31 Sept. 1-10 Sept. 10-20 Sept. 21-30 Discharge Total dissolved (cfs) solids (ppm) 302 45 273 44 399 41 470 39 288 57 271 43 249 39 299 38 301 38 270 40 267 42 323 39 389 39 354 39 295 39 254 40 294 38 383 38 315 39 256 39 239 40 354 40 677 36 493 37 427 44 284 44 350 39 282 41 227 44 271 41 196 44 203 41 370 41 350 41 360 42 238 45 with the soil might be buffering river water and reducing it to a common composition in all parts of the world. This implies a very large exchange capacity for the participating solids in the system, which poses some difficulty when we remember that the uniformity of river water is most pronounced in the downstream parts, where the simple geometry of streams renders the contact between water and solids minimal. It also seems to be unnecessary, for the similarity of the various large river waters is apparently quite adequately explained as a result of the integration of the chemical composition of their tributaries. The larger the drain- age basin of a river, the closer, on the average, will the chemical composition of its rocks approach the mean chemical composition of the surface rocks of the earth, and the closer will the composition of the water which it empties into the sea approach the mean composition of all waters. The same line of argument holds for that part of the salt which is of meteoric origin. There does not seem to be any need to invoke sorption reac- G6 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY tions to explain the general uniformity of the water of large rivers. This does not mean that sorption reactions can be neglected in river chemistry. For some elements, particularly the heavy metals, they are of the greatest importance, and they have some effect on the contribu- tion of river salt to sea water, but they do not seem to be of great importance in controlling the general composition of river waters. Because of the great temporal and spatial variability of river water, a single sample from a river can give only a very inadequate measure of its chemistry. Particularly in lands with a very great seasonal varia- tion in rainfall, such an estimate may be in error by several orders of magnitude. This is the quality of the data available, however, and the analysts have to rely frequently on a single sample to characterize major rivers, particularly those in tropical and arctic regions. It is very gratifying to have a few rivers to which it is possible to given annual weighted means of water composition at a number of points. Chemical investigations of river water are usually made to provide background information concerning the utility of the water for industrial and agricultural purposes. The ions that reduce the potability of the water, or that produce objectionable hardness, are the principal ones measured. A few minor elements essential to plant or animal nutrition, such as boron, fluorine, and fixed nitrogen are often included. Occa- sionally heavy metals that may be of interest in measur- ing industrial pollution, such as lead, arsenic, chromium, zinc, and copper, are included in routine analyses of this sort. A substantial number of analyses have been made by limnologists. These are, in general, of httle value for geochemical purposes because the elements de- termined are usually those that have biological im- portance, such as oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen in its various combined forms. In a few cases, particularly for lakes in remote parts of the world, the major con- stituents of the dissolved mineral matter of lake and river water have been determined. Although these analyses have a special value, as they often come from lands devoid of industrial development and hence of other analytical data, they are to be found in a very small percentage of limnological papers, even of those whose titles suggest a chemical emphasis. Data that have been collected specifically for geo- chemical purposes are extremely scarce. For the most part they are restricted to a single element or a small group of related elements, although some geochemists working with trace elements are careful to present data for the principal mineral constituents of the waters under analysis. These are the most valuable sources of data, but they are also the most scarce. The most common geologic purpose for which the chemical data dealing with river waters are used is the calculation of the amount and nature of the substance that is removed from the land by river waters and deposited in the sea. It should be understood that the data available for this purpose are scarce, incom- plete, and not always accurate. By accepting them at face value and ignoring the uncertainties involved a spurious appearance of reliability can be given to the calculated results, but they will, in fact, be less reliable than ones incorporating a certain number of reasonable assumptions. The first source of error lies in the incompleteness of the data. In general, it is only the highly industrial- ized nations of the temperate zones that make routine chemical analyses of river water. As a result many great river systems of the world, particularly in the tropics and the Arctic, have been analyzed, if at all, only by an occasional interested traveler. The samples collected in this way are usually transported elsewhere for analysis, and in the meantime they are stored in glass bottles that exchange a variable quantity of soluble material with the water. Even in the countries where water analyses are routinely made, there is rather inadequate coverage. As was demonstrated above, the concentration of river water bears an inverse relation to the discharge. If the discharge shows a great seasonal variation, a single sample will not suffice for a calculation of the quantity of dissolved material carried to the sea, even if the annual variation of discharge is accurately known. It is necessary to carry a systematic program of sampling over a period of at least 12 months in order to determine the chemical load of a stream. Even this will not, of course, take into account varia- tions due to wetter and dryer years. The U.S. Geological Survey has made long-term investigations of a number of streams, so it is possible to avoid the errors due to discharge variations in a number of American rivers. The procedure is to take a series of daily samples and to combine them into composite samples, usually every 10 days, for analysis. This, in effect, yields a series of simple 10-day averages for the chemical nature of the water. Such simple averages will suggest that the river water of the sampling period is somewhat less dilute than it actually is, and a closer approach to the true mean concentration is sometimes achieved by combining the daily water samples in quantities proportional to the discharge on the days they were collected. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G7 Errors of this sort will be minimal in considering the chemical discharge of large streams into the ocean, for such streams do not display as marked fluctuations as their small tributaries. These errors may be more important in computing the salt discharge into basins of internal drainage. A more serious error, and one that affects all the data that are available for stream transport of mineral substances, stems from general carelessness in dis- criminating between dissolved and colloidal or sus- pended material and a cavalier disregard for all the mineral matter that does not meet the arbitrary criteria of solution set up by a particular investigator. For purposes of practical industrial water chem- istry the errors introduced by these habits of thought and analytical procedure may not be important. Obviously the bedload of a stream will have little effect upon its suitability as a source of boiler water, but in calculations of the role of streams in geochemical cycles these errors are more serious. The few careful investigations, such as Strakhov's (1948) work with iron in natural waters, deal with a very small number of elements only. The implicit assumption behind this practice of ignoring all mineral matter that is not dissolved in stream water seems to be that mineral matter is pres- ent in only two states, as true solutions and as sus- pensions, and that the suspended material consists of unmodified rock, so that transport of the solid material effects no chemical fractionation of the earth's mantle. The transport of clay, silt, sand, and gravel has been regarded as the sphere of the geo- morphologist rather than of the geochemist. For material of large-grade size this may be almost true. Gravel carried by streams is probably not changed very much chemically from the parent rock from which it came, although one would like to have more definite evidence of this. One should know to what extent it is unmodified primary rock, and to what extent it is the residue from which the elements being carried in true solution by rivers have been removed. It is in considering the finer grades, however, that the seriousness of ignoring suspended material becomes apparent. Even such readily ionized and extremely soluble elements as sodium and chlorine can be bound in considerable quantity to fine mineral particles by various sorption processes, of which the most important is probably ion exchange. Data concerning the sorp- tive capacities of suspended river solids are extremely scarce. The study of Carritt and Goodgal (1954) on Chesapeake Bay silts shows that the sorptive capacity may be considerable, and further that it may be in- fluenced by surrounding conditions, such as pH, in such a way that ions strongly sorbed to the river silt when it is in fresh water may be released as soon as the river water mixes with the sea. The opposite transfer is also possible. A river silt may enter the sea with its sorptive capacity at a very low level of saturation, and may, on entry into the ocean, immedi- ately pick up a large quantity of ionized material from the sea water and precipitate it on the ocean floor. This is a separate process from the chemical precipitation of certain dissolved components which has been recognized ever since it became apparent that there were discrepancies between the chemistry of the sea and that of the rivers that nourished it. The pernicious variability of filtration procedures al- ready referred to must be considered. If a sample is carefully filtered, the analysis should give a figure that is representative of the dissolved material, using the term "dissolved" to mean "consisting of aggregates small enough to pass the particular filter used." If the sample is not filtered prior to analysis, then not only dissolved material, but also any sorbed material re- moved by the method of analysis, will be included in the result. In the absence of exhaustive data on the sorptive capacity and saturation of river silts, it is impossible to evaluate the magnitude of this error exactly. It will vary from element to element and from river to river. For the principal components in most rivers it will not be of very great importance. The quantity of sus- pended material usually carried by streams is hardly an order of magnitude greater than the quantity of dis- solved material, according to usual methods of discrim- inating between them. As only a small part of the suspended material consists of sorbed components, esti- mates of the total amount of mineral matter carried by rivers or of the principal components of the mineral matter are unlikely to be seriously in error. Any complete consideration of the geochemical role of rivers, however, cannot be restricted to the major elements that are strongly ionized, but must include the trace elements, plus more abundant elements that vary widely in solubility under the conditions that prevail in the hydrosphere. Elements so scarce that they tend to limit the growth of aquatic organisms provide another example of the danger of trying to carry out geochemical calculations with only the dissolved component of river solids. Phosphorus, for example, may be reduced to so low a level in waters that is is not detectable in inorganic so- lution. Under such circumstances an analysis for phos- phate ion will be completely misleading. There may be appreciable phosphorus in the water in the bodies of plants and animals or in the form of dissolved organic materials. The same is true for nitrogen and silicon, G8 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY and doubtless for other elements as well. The river forms a dynamic system in which the biological ele- ments are continually exchanging, and at a particular time the fraction of the total mobile phosphorus, nitro- gen, or silicon that is dissolved in the water may vary from an indetectable amount to almost the whole of it. Strakhov (1948) has investigated the state of iron in natural waters and has come to the conclusion that for this element, under most circumstances, the proportion of the total amount that is transported in a dissolved form in river waters is very small. The fraction of geo- chemical significance is bound on the surfaces of the fine mineral grains carried in suspension. Vernadskii (1948, in the Discussion of Strakhov's paper) has further pointed out that even Strakhov overestimated the im- portance of the dissolved iron, for the solubility product of ferric iron is such that an insignificant amount is in simple solution under ordinary conditions in most river waters. This need not concern us, however, for we are more interested in using "dissolved iron" in the sense of the analysts who report this entity in their analyses than in a rigorous physico-chemical way. Shapiro (1957) has shown that some iron may be dissolved in natural waters, despite the low solubility of ferric ion. Organic compounds of moderate molecular weight stabilize the iron and keep it in solution. Iron is an extreme example, but it is not alone. The behavior of manganese, cobalt, and nickel must be rather similar. One must not lose sight of the solu- bility of the solid silicates, including not only the dia- toms, sponges, and other minute silica particles in the river, but also the silica in the glass bottles that are still commonly used as sample containers. The last source of error is most likely to be serious for strongly alkaline waters. Hutchinson (1937) found the following in- creases in the silica content of some water samples from Indian Tibet between the time of their collection in the field and their analysis in the United States: Tso Moriri—- Tso Kav Khyagar Tso. Yaye Tso Mitpal Tso.. Pangur Tso.. Pangong Tso. Ororotse Tso. Besides these sampling errors there is a certain am- ount of error in the analytical procedures used to deter- mine the composition of water samples. In earlier editions of this work considerable effort was devoted to SiOa content at the time of col- lection in Tibet (ppm) Si02 content after shipment to U.S.A. in glass bottles (ppm) 6 14 2 25 2 23 6 9 26 24 2 168 1 17 2 8 selecting trustworthy analyses. To a great extent this was possible, because the analyst responsible for a partic- ular analysis was usually known, and something of his skill and experience were known as well. In the much larger scientific community of today it is impossible to have a critical familiarity with the competence of more than a small fraction of the analysts concerned, and, perhaps for this practical reason, the analyst is less often specified in the published account of an analysis. For papers having several authors, one might presume that the analyses had been carried out by the authors themselves, but frequently the analytical responsibility is shared by an entire organization. Obviously un- trustworthy or outmoded analyses have been avoided. Another method of distinguishing good from bad analyses that was used in the earlier editions was to check the equivalence of anions and cations reported in the analyses. Apart from the possibility of compen- sating errors, which it cannot reveal, this method has the objection that uncertainties arise about the position of dubiously ionized components. In this edition the most suitable of the available analyses were chosen, which means, for a large part of the earth's surface, all available analyses. These explanatory notes are intended as a general caveat concerning the reliability of the results. Temporal variations in the chemical content of rivers, as we have seen, are associated principally with varia- tions in river discharge. To some extent lakes, par- ticularly those of arid regions, become more concen- trated as the level falls, but this is not the principal cause of changes in lake-water chemistry. Lakes in general are chemically more stable than streams and they do not show such striking changes in the amount and proportions of the principal dissolved substances. Very concentrated lakes in cold arid lands may display an annual chemical cycle, as the lowered temp- erature of winter causes the water to fall below the saturation temperature of one or more of the materials that dissolved in the water during the heat of summer. When this happens salts crystallize out of the water, and their concentration falls. In addition, because the least soluble salts come out first, the percentage composition of the remaining mineral substance is altered. Even less concentrated lakes may display wide annual fluctuations in concentration if they are shallow in relation to their ice cover. Figure 3, for example, shows how the chloride and magnesium contents of a shallow Arctic lake increased by freezing out of salts into the water that remains under the whiter ice. Imikpuk, the lake described in the figure, occasionally receives some sea water, but a similar change is to be expected even in completely fresh Arctic waters. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G9 EXPLANATION Fioube 3.— Seasonal changes in the chemical composition of Imikpuk, a small lake in Alaska near the Arctic Ocean. After Boyd (1959). Reprinted by permission of Ecology. Such seasonal changes are of rather restricted extent. In most lakes the major ions, except the components of the carbonate buffer system, remain relatively constant in amount, and large changes in water chemistry are restricted to the scarcer biologi- cally important substances. There are also diurnal changes in water chemistry, but these are known to involve only the dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide. During the day, photosynthetic plants remove carbon dioxide from the water and use it in the manufacture of carbohydrate, giving up oxygen at the same time. During the night the respiration of plants and animals reverses the process. In very productive lakes, under the control of carbo- nate buffer systems, uptake of carbon dioxide by photosynthesizing plants occasionally may cause very dramatic changes in pH, as first the free C0 2 , then the HC0 3 , and finally carbonate is used in photosynthesis. The latter step is accomplished by the hydrolysis of calcium carbonate, and leaves calcium hydroxide in the water. An example is given in figure 4. Oxygen is easily and accurately measured, and forms part of a great number of chemical analyses of lake waters and of river waters as well. Most of these have been spot analyses taken at a single and unspecified time of day, and yield very little information of value about the oxygen content of the water over a period of 24 hours. Eecently there has been much interest among limnologists in using diurnal oxygen change as a measure of biological productivity (fig. 5), and one may expect a great increase in the amount of informa- tion about the magnitude of changes in this gas. At present it is evident that the change is great in produc- 643862 — 63 3 12 p.m. 6 12 m. Figube 4.— Diurnal pH changes in a small freshwater lake near Cape Town. After Schiitle and Elsworth (1954). Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Scientific Publications, Ltd., Oxford, England. tive lakes but may not be measurable in unproductive ones, and that the diurnal oxygen change in a single body of water may change with the season. In a shallow lake that mixes freely to the bottom, gas changes are only diurnal, for diffusion from the atmosphere makes up any net loss or gain that may take place over 24 hours. Many lakes do not mix freely to the bottom, however, and in the stagnant lower layers of these the gas changes are cumulative and have a profound effect on other aspects of the deep- water chemistry as weU. TIME OF DAY, IN HOURS 6 12 18 Light Figure 5.— Diumal oxygen change in Silver Springs, Fla. After Odum (1956). Reprinted by permission of American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Inc. G10 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Stratification is commonly the result of surface heating by the sun. The warm surface water is lighter than the deep water beneath it, and so resists the tendency of the wind to stir it into the depths. Whether or not a permanent stratification is set up depends on the temperature range involved, upon the rate at which the lake warms up at the beginning of the summer in temperate lands or the sunny dry season in the tropics, upon the wind strength, and upon the size and shape of the lake. The wind is able to work effectively on a lake several miles long and may mix it to a depth of some tens of feet. If the total depth of the lake is not greater than that, it will not stratify. On the other hand, a small farm pond sheltered by thick woods may be mixed only to a depth of few inches. A thermally stratified lake may be considered as two compartments: an upper freely circulating epilimnion and a lower, nearly stagnant hypolimnion. The zone of rapidly changing temperature that separates the two compartments is commonly known as the thermocline or clinolimnion. An homologous stratification may be set up by differ- ences in salt content of the deep and shallow water in a lake. This may happen if salt springs flow into the bottom, in a coastal lake if sea water at spring high tide flows over the sill that separates the lake basin from the sea, or as a result of internal biological processes. It may also occur in semiarid lakes if a shift in drainage of a nearby river causes it to pour fresh water over the salt water in the lake basin. Stratification because of salt differences is known as meromixis and usually lasts for many years or even indefinitely. Its principal difference from thermal stratification is this perma- nence, for thermal stratification breaks down every time the surface water cools enough for the wind to mix it into the depths. The chemical results of meromixis are cumulative and are usually more pro- nounced than those of seasonal thermal stratification. The chemical differences that develop between sur- face and deep water in a stratified lake are of biological origin. In the upper zone light is plentiful and photo- synthesis is actively carried on. This removes carbon dioxide from the water and adds oxygen to it. Dif- fusion from the atmosphere tends to restore gaseous equilibrium at the water surface, and turbulent mixing tends to carry this water down into the depths, so that there is no permanent change in the gas content of the epilimnion. On a bright day, however, when the plant community is actively photosynthesizing, temporary changes will occur, as mentioned above in connection with the diurnal gas changes of natural waters. The amount of oxygen found at a depth of a few feet under such conditions may be substantially more than the water would hold if saturated at atmospheric pressure. Although such water is sometimes said to be supersat- urated with oxygen, it is not actually supersaturated at the ambient pressure. When the oxygen content exceeds the saturation value under the ambient con- ditions, bubbles form. This phenomenon is com- monly observed in dense plant beds growing in the upper few meters of clear productive lakes. Conditions in deep water are rather different. Light is scarce and photosynthesis much reduced. Respira- tion, however, continues apace, not only the respiration of the animal community, but also the respiration of the host of reducing organisms, particularly bacteria, that are engaged in breaking down the organic substance that settles from the productive epilimnion. Oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide is produced in the hypolimnion. There is no possibility of rapid replenishment by diffusion from the atmosphere, which is sealed off by the thermocline, and the gas changes are cumulative. In meromictic lakes the gas changes will accumulate for many years. The change from oxidizing to reducing conditions leads to the appearance of much nitrite, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and ferrous iron in the water. It also causes the release from the bottom sediments of a considerable quantity of phosphorus and silica. The seasonal cycle of events has been studied by Mortimer (1941-42) in Esthwaite Water, a productive lake in the English lake district that stratifies very strongly during the summer and to some extent also during the winter. Some of these results are shown in figure 6. If a strong wind blows across a stratified lake, the light surface water of the epilimnion will tend to pile up on the downwind side of the lake. This may be so pronounced as to strip all of the epilimnion from the upwind side, exposing hypolimnetic water of very different chemical composition. After the wind stops blowing a standing wave of very great amplitude will exist at the boundary between light and dense water, and this wave may continue to oscillate for many days. It is evident that any system showing as many tem- poral and spatial variations in chemical content as a deep lake will be inadequately represented by the chemi- cal analysis of a single sample taken at some point on the surface. In a lake with strong meromixis such a sample will not even provide a rough idea of the mean composition of the water. Limnologists are aware of this state of affairs, but their chemical analyses are usually very incomplete; geologists who are, in general, more scrupulous about including all the major ions in their chemical analyses, tend to sample lakes as if they were temporally and spatially homogeneous. With these general words of warning about the state of present knowledge of the chemistry of lakes and rivers, we may proceed to an examination of the data. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES Gil OVERTURN PARTIAL COMPLETE 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 Figure 6.— Redox potential near the mud-water interface and concentrations of dis- solved substances in the water just over the mud surface of Esthwaite Water, England, during 1940. Redox potential (E?) in volts, Os=dissolved oxygen, Fe=fcrrous iron, Mn=manganese, P = phosphate as PiOj, NHi=ammonia, NOj=nitrate nitrogen, all is in parts per million. After Mortimer, 1941-42. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Scientific Publications, Ltd., Oxford, England. GENEEAL ANALYSES NORTH AMERICA An overwhelming mass of chemical data exists for the rivers of North America. Most of the analyses have been made as part of a systematic sampling program of the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey and have been published in a series of Water-Supply Papers: Collins, Howard, and Love (1943); Collins and Love (1944); Howard and Love (1945); Howard (1948); U.S. Geological Survey (1947 1948]; 1949b; 1950 [1951]; 1952; 1953a, b; 1954a, b, c, d; 1955a, b, c, d, e; 1956a, b, c; 1957a, b, c; 1958a, b, c, d, e; 1959a, b, c, d, e, f; 1960a, b, c, d, e). In addition, many reports deal with individual states. The follow- ing is a selection from a very large number of references; generally only the most recent ones of a series are cited. U.S. Geological Survey (1960f, g, h); Saunders and Billingsley (1950); Geurin (1951); Geurin and Jeffery (1957) ; Smith and others (1949) ; California Department of Water Resources (1956, 1957); Lamar (1944); Cherry (1961); Hershey (1955); Lamar and Laird (1953); Lamar, Krieger, and Collier (1955); Hembree, Colby, Swenson, and Davis (1952); Lamar (1943); Pauszek (1952); Pauszek and Harris (1951); McAvoy (1957); Woodward and Thomas (I960); White (1947); Lamar and Schroeder (1951); Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (1950 [1951]); Murphy (1955); Dover (1956, 1959); Beamer (1953); Pennsylvania State Planning Board (1947); Pauszek (1951); Hastings and Rowley (1946); Irelan and others (1950); Irelan (1957); Hughes and Jones (1961); Connor, Mitchell, and others (1959); Lamar and Whetstone (1947); Whetstone and McAvoy (1952); Kapustka (1957). The older data are collected in Clarke (1924a). Inventories of published and unpublished data may be found in Northcraft and Westgarth (1957), U.S. Federal Inter-Agency River Basin Commission (1948, 1954, 1956), and Westgarth and Northcraft (1956). Lake sampling has not been nearly as comprehensive. There are extensive sets of data both in government publications and the limnological literature, but most of the analyses are deficient because some important major ions have been neglected, or because of insuf- ficient sampling. Despite the wealth of data there are serious gaps in the coverage even of the rivers. There does not exist, for example, any really adequate series of chemical data for the lower Mississippi. Outside of the United States information is far more scarce. It has not been possible to locate a reasonably complete analysis of a single river in Mexico, and the coverage for Canada is very poor. There are only a few scraps of information for the whole MacKenzie River system, and the chemistry of most of the northern lakes and rivers is completely unknown. This is particularly unfortunate because of the opportunities Canada affords for the study of the geochemical regimen of rivers that are completely within the tundra zone. Even the waters of the well-settled parts of the country, however, are represented by only a few spot samples, and it is not possible to draw up a reliable long-term mean for any Canadian river. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER BASIN A representative series of analyses is presented in tables 6 and 7. The St. Lawrence basin is a well- G12 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY watered region and the concentration of dissolved salts is not high. A very marked difference is apparent, however, between the waters draining the chemically resistant rocks of the Canadian shield, with total dissolved salts often well below 50 ppm, and those draining the sedimentary rocks of the southern Great Lakes region, with total dissolved salts mostly be- tween 100 and 500 ppm. Some of the Canadian shield waters, such as the Saguenay Eiver, are very dilute, but they are ordinary calcium bicarbonate waters and are not otherwise remarkable. Some rivers in the St. Lawrence system, in particular the streams flowing into Lake Erie from the south, such as the Cuyahoga (table 6, analysis I) are subject to heavy industrial pollution. ATLANTIC COAST DRAINAGE A selection of analyses representing waters of the Atlantic Coast from Nova Scotia to Florida is pre- sented in tables 8, 9, and 10. This is also a well- watered area, and most of its waters are rather dilute. Table 6. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the St. Lawrence River basin A B c D E F G H I j K L M N HCOr 1 26.2 8.5 1.0 126. 1 16.8 3.4 134.2 13. 6 3.0 210.5 58.8 36.2 229.3 124. 2 14.8 102. 1 13. 1 1.8 15.3 8.9 1. 5 27.5 8.0 1.6 120 82 32 .2 4.3 54 12 21 3.4 .06 6.7 30.5 7.2 1. 1 43. 3 12. 1.6 16.9 5.3 1.0 6.7 5.0 .8 6. 1 3. 1 .5 100. 7 SOr 2 5.3 Cl- 1 1.5 F-i NOj" 1 1.33 9.0 3.6 3.8 .50 36.0 4.8 5.3 .08 39. 5 6. 3 1.8 2. 13 66.6 20. 1 21.2 1.58 87.3 24. 1 15.7 1.5 31. 8 4.8 2.7 1. 10 7.5 2.8 1. 1 .62 10.5 3.0 3.6 .26 16.0 3.2 \ 5. 2 .02 6.6 .52 15.6 4. 1 3.6 .05 6.6 .72 6.2 1.6 2.4 .24 13. 5 5.8 4.8 1.3 3. 3 . 15 4.2 .60 3.6 1.5 .20 3.0 .40 Ca« Me +2 28. 2 4.8 Na +1 K +1 6.8 Fe . 15 3.0 None 4.8 .05 6.0 .25 9.5 .06 9.9 . 7 6. 5 .08 1.4 .22 5. 8 .5 Si0 2 --- 9.4 Total dissolved solids.- ._ 56.6 198 205 425 507 165 39.7 60. 8 336 70. 1 87.4 47.9 32. 1 >18. 6 158 A Lake Nipissing at North Bay, Ontario; depth sample 2 miles from shore. May 26, 1939. Leverin (1947), analysis 613. B. Lake Couchiching at Orillia, Ontario; depth sample 3 miles from shore. July 17, 1934. Leverin (1947), analysis 15. C. Lake Simcoe, Ontario. Depth sample at mouth of Kampenfeldt Bay. Aug. 12, 1935. Leverin (1947), analysis 222. D. Thames River at Chatham, Ontario. Mean of 6 analyses from 1934-40, Leverin (1947), analyses 17, 223, 338, 355, 488, 737. E. Grand River at Brantford, Ontario. Mean of 9 analyses from 1934-42. Leverin (1947), analyses 20, 266, 337, 352, 467, 486, 597, 736, and 842. F. Trent River at Trenton, Ontario. Mean of 4 analyses, 1934-37. Leverin (1947 analyses 23, 229, 336, 339, 375, and 849. G. Lake Temlskamlng at Haileybury, Ontario. Depth sample 1 mile from shore, Aug. 27, 1937. Leverin (1947), analysis 363. H. Ottawa, River at Hawkesbury, Ontario. Mean of 8 analyses, 1934-38. Leverin (1947), analyses 2, 3, 207, 335, 346, 347, 496, and 583. I. Cuyahoga River at Botaum, Ohio. U.S. Geol. Survey (1952). Mean for Oct. 1946-Sept. 1947. J. Magog River at Sherbrooke, Quebec. June 26, 1942. Leverin (1947), analysis 850. K. Richelieu River at St. Johns, Quebec. Mean of 4 samples, 1935-42. Leverin (1947), analyses 219, 318, 799, and 851. L. St. Charles River at Chateau d'Eau, Quebec. Mean of 4 samples, 1934-39. Leverin (1947), analyses 13, 213, 322, and 634. M. St. Maurice River at Three Rivers, Quebec. Mean of 5 samples, 1934-41. Leverin (1947), analyses 9, 211, 321, 635, and 802. N. Saguenay River at Riverbend, Quebec. July 12, 1935. Leverin (1947), analysis 217. O. Nipigon River at Nipigon, Ontario. Aug. 2, 1937. Leverin (1947), analysis 362. Table 7.— -Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River A B C D E F G H I J K L HC0 3 -' 50.0 48 1.5 52. 1 6.3 2. 1 76.3 13. 2 2.9 100.0 13. 1 4.2 117.7 22. 1 14 8 121 28 17 . 1 1.2 39 8.7 f 8. 2 1 1-4 .03 2. 1 113. 5 20.3 15.6 110. 1 21. 5 15.7 108.8 21. 4 16. 1 87.5 18. 6 12. 85.8 16. 10. 4 84 SOr 2 20 Cl" 1 16 p-i .0 N0 3 -' . ._ -_ .52 14. 1 3.7 } 3. 4 .36 4. 1 .61 14. 6 4. 2 2.6 .06 5.4 .61 22. 8 6.4 4. 4 .02 5.2 1.32 27. 6 7.5 2. 4 .04 5.6 .79 38. 1 8. 5 7.7 .06 6.0 .85 36.9 7.8 } 8. 9 .06 3. 7 .82 35. 7 8. 4 8.0 .06 3.9 . 68 36.5 8.3 8.5 .04 6.5 .07 29.3 6.4 6.6 .06 5.7 .89 27.6 5.9 4 1 . 05 9.9 . 4 Ca+ 2 28 Mg+ 2 -- --- - - -- 5.8 Na+i J 8.0 1 1.1 K +1 Fe .02 Si0 2 1.7 Total dissolved solids. 82. 5 88.0 132 162 216 227 208 204 207 166 161 165 A. Lake Superior. Mean of 6 samples taken from various places on the lake, at H. depths from 12 to 20 ft. Leverin (1947), analyses 359, 559, 900, 901, 947, 948. B. St. Mary's River at Sault Ste Marie, Ontario. Mean of 5 analyses, 1936-38. I. Leverin (1947), analyses 326, 356, 357, 557, 558. C. Georgian Bay at Collingwood, Ontario. June 12, 1942. Leverin (1947), analysis J. 843. D. St. Clair River at Point Edward, Ontario. Mean of 4 analyses, 1934-37. Lever- K. in (1947), analyses 18, 224, 327, 353. E. LakeErieat Fort Erie, Ontario (outletinto NiagaraRiver). Meanof6analyses, L. 1934-38. Leverin (1947), analyses 22, 227, 329, 350, 466, 598. F. Lake Erie at Huron, Ohio. Mean of 7 analyses, Sept. 1950-Sept. 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955c). G. Lake Ontario at Toronto, Ontario. Mean of 7 samples, 1934-38. Leverin (1947), analyses 21, 228, 330, 351, 465, 485, 596. St. Lawrence River at Kingston, Ontario. Mean of 8 samples, 1934-42. Leverin (1947), analyses 24, 230, 331, 464, 484, 595, 735, 846. St. Lawrence River at Cornwall, Ontario. Mean of 9 samples, 1934-45. Leverin (1947), analyses 25, 231, 332, 374, 463, 594, 734, 801, 844. St. Lawrence River at Montreal. Mean of 10 samples, 1934-42. Leverin (1947), analyses 7, 26, 208, 232, 333, 345, 348, 349, 632, 847. St. Lawrence River at Sorel, Quebec. Mean of 3 samples, 1934-36. Leverin (1947), analyses 8, 220, 334. St. Lawrence River at water works plant at Levis, Quebec, Aug. 1953. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes Ag, 0.00094 ppm; Al, 0.276 ppm; B, 0.013 ppm; Ba, 0.030 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.012 ppm; Cu, 0.0043 ppm; Li, 0.00041 ppm; Mn, 0.021 ppm; Mo, 0.0017 ppm; Ni, 0.0013 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm: Pb, 0.0037 ppm; Rb, 0.0014 ppm; Sr, 0.066 ppm; Ti, 0.021 ppm. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES Table 8. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Atlantic Coast drainage in Canada G13 A B C D E F H 1 J K L HC0 3 -' 14.6 7.7 75.5 3. 54 .83 6.4 6.9 J39. 5 .05 8.0 87.8 5. 2 11.5 .71 . 56 33.8 2.3 6.5 .40 2.3 0.7 4.3 6. 1 . 42 .66 3. 6 2.5 5. 5 . 23 3.0 17. 1 9.0 22. .20 .77 7.2 3.2 10. 7 . 15 6.6 3. 1 4.2 2. 4 .99 6.7 4. 8 .70 .84 11. 6 5.5 .7 .49 4.5 6. 4 3.3 .58 52. 9 9. 2 2.3 .40 0.0 6. 2 7.5 2. 7 5.4 5.2 8 7 so,- 2 5. 8 CI-' 5. NO," 1 POr 3 Ca+ 2 3.5 1.2 3.4 .04 1.6 5. 5 2.4 3. 1 . 16 5.0 7.2 2.0 3.2 .28 4. 4 3.9 3.2 5. 6 . 18 4.8 16. 9 5.0 3. 1 . 10 4, 7 1. 1 4.7 ; 5. I 4.2 2.3 . 5 3.2 .6 3 6 Mg+ 2 8 Na +1 3. 4 K+i . 5 Fe SiO. Total dissolved sol- ids. 163 151 27.0 76.9 20. 4 29. 2 35. 4 32.5 94.6 >28. 7 >19. 9 >27. 8 c. D. E. F. Dalvay Pond at Dalvay, Prince Edward Island, Sept. 19, 1940. Depth sample. Leverin (1947), analysis 728. Ellerslie Creek, Ellerslie, Prince Edward Island. July 10, 1940. Leverin (1947), analysis 724. Mean of 9 samples from the Moser Eiver basin, Nova Scotia, 1939-40. Leverin (1947), analyses 645, 646, 719, 647, 721, 648, 718, 720, 723. Wallace River, Nova Scotia. Aug. 9, 1940. Leverin (1947), analysis 717. Chain of lakes 7 miles from St. Andrews, New Brunswick. Mean of 8 samples taken Oct. 16, 1941. Leverin (1947), analyses 804-811. Northwest Miramichi River at Redbank, New Brunswick. Mean of 3 analyses 1939-41. Leverin (1947), analyses 640, 731, 797. Southwest Miramichi River at Quarryville, New Brunswick. Mean of 3 K. L. analyses, 1939-41. Leverin (1947), analyses 639, 730, 798. Grand Lake, New Brunswick. Mean of 2 analyses, 1939-40. Leverin (1947), analyses 642, 733. St. John River at Woodstock, New Brunswick. Mean of 3 analyses, 1936-40. Leverin (1947), analyses 324, 643, 732. Mean of 10 lakes on granite in Halifax County, Nova Scotia, Dec. 1955. Gorham (1957a, p. 14), analyses 1-10. Mean of 9 lakes on slate or quartzite in Halifax County, Nova Scotia, Dec. 1955 Gorham (1957a, p. 14), analyses 11-19. Mean of 4 lakes on or receiving drainage from Carboniferous strata, Halifax County, Nova Scotia, Dec. 1955. Gorham (1957a, p. 14), analyses 20-23. Not all these are calcium bicarbonate waters. In the coastal regions where the influence of sea spray is strong there is much more sodium and chloride than calcium and carbonate. (See, for example, Dalvay Table 9. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Atlantic Coast drainage in the northern United States A B D E F G H I HCOj-i 11 43 .1 2.4 2.3 16 9.6 .2 2.2 .9 21 12 .1 1.8 1.0 33 22 .1 3.8 3.2 72 .1 2.3 .9 111 32 .1 14 4.6 88 20 .1 22 5.9 48 74 .0 9.5 2.2 .025 28 .025 11 .0035 7.8 1.8 .0021 .02 .027 .0021 .2 93 so t -» 25 F-> .0 Cl-i 5.0 NOr 1 Ba*» 1.2 .028 Ca+» 13 6.3 7.8 13 14 34 23 32 8r«. .106 Mr 1 4.5 1.4 2.0 42 5.2 9.8 5.0 4.9 Ll+i .0022 Na« _ 3.4 1.3 1.9 .8 21 1.0 3.5 1.3 3.3 1.4 9.9 2.2 23 3.3 4.8 K+i Rb+i 2.0 .0019 Fe Al .03 .03 .03 .04 .08 .04 .08 .07 .304 Mn .31 5.1 .00 6.7 5.7 .035 SiOj 4.6 3.6 2.8 3.8 4.9 Total dissolved 85.6 42.9 70.5 87.9 105 223 196 183 173 A. Lehigh River at Catasauqua, Pa. Oct. 1944 to Sept. 1945. U.S. Geol. Survey (1949b). B. Delaware River at Dingmans Ferry, Pa. Oct. 1950 to Sept. 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955c). C. Delaware River at Belvedere, N.J. Oct. 1944 to Sept. 1945. U.S. Geol. Survey (1949b). D. Delaware River at Trenton, N.J. Oct. 1944 to Sept. 1945. U.S. Geol. Survey (1949b). E. West Branch Susquehanna River at Lock Haven, Pa. Oct. 1945 to Sept. 1946. U.S. Geol. Survey (1950 [1951]). F. Frankstown Branch Juniata River at Huntingdon, Pa. Oct. 1947 to Sept. 1948. U.S. Geol. Survey (1953a). G. Codorus Creek near York, Pa. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). H. Susquehanna River at hydroelectric plant spillway at Conowingo, Md. Sept. 11, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes Ag, 0.00025 ppm; B, 0.016 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Pb, <0.0021 ppm; Ti, <0.0021 ppm. I. Hudson River at Ford Motor Co. powerplant at Green Island, N.Y. Oct. 29, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison, 1960. Analysis includes Ag, 0.00015 ppm; B, 0.009 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.030 ppm; Cu, 0.0086 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.012 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb ,0.0029 ppm; and Ti, <0.0014 ppm. Pond, analysis A, and the mean of 10 lakes on granite in Halifax County, table 8, analysis J, where there is no detectable bicarbonate.) Sulfate concentration is high in many of these waters. In the dilute waters the absolute amount is not high, and much of it may be from sea spray. But in the more concentrated waters from coal mining areas, for example, the Lehigh, Delaware, and Susquehanna Rivers, much of the sulfate is of sedimentary origin. Mining operations frequently expose pyrite to oxidation and result in a great increase in the rate in which sulfur is leached from the country rock in these areas. (See table 9, analysis E.) Table 10. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Atlantic Coast drainage in the southern United Slates A B O D E F HCOr 1 -- 20 3.1 .0 2.4 .33 4.0 1.2 3.2 1.3 .4 10.0 27 3.3 .0 2.9 .42 6.2 1.4 3.8 1.3 .11 11 14 6.6 .2 12 .1 5.5 1.7 7.4 .7 .05 2.4 136 28 .2 29 1.2 41 9.1 22 1.2 .02 9.3 241 32 .2 98 1.8 63 13 72 2.3 .10 21 299 SOi-J. 46 F-i .6 Cl-i 88 NO3-1 3.3 Ca+2... 72 Ms" 21 Na« 70 K« 2.8 Fe SiOj .03 18 Total dissolved solids . 45.9 57.4 49.7 277 644 620 A. Savannah River near Clyo.Ga. May 1938 to Apr. 1939. Lamar(1944). B. Altamaha River at Doctortown, Ga. May 1937 to Apr. 1938. Lamar (1944). O. Kissimmee River near Okeechobee, Fla. Mar. 1940 to Feb. 1941. Collins, Howard, and Love (1943). D. Lake Okeechobee 5 miles north of Clewiston, Fla. Mean of 17 analyses, July 1950 to Sept. 1951 U.S. Geol. Survey (1955c). E. West Palm Beach Canal at Loxahatchee, Fla. Nov. 1950 to Sept. 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955c). F. Hillsboro Canal at Shawano, Fla. Oct. 1950 to Sept. 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955c). G14 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY There are minor differences between the waters of the Atlantic Coast drainage, even within a small area, as shown by the analyses by Gorham (1957a) of lake waters from three kinds of rock in a single county in Nova Scotia. The general picture is one of rather dilute water and a remarkable uniformity from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida, where the concentra- tion of calcium-bicarbonate waters is again more than 500 ppm. There are undoubtedly small pockets of hard surface water farther north — for example, in the regions of dolomite outcrop on Cape Breton Island — and probably small streams with much saltier water as well, for salt springs are known from the Atlantic Coast drainage, but these aberrant waters are too local in occurrence to affect the general composition of the major streams, and too scarce to have been detected in the sampling that has been done so far. EASTERN TRIBUTARIES OF THE GUIF OF MEXICO West of peninsular Florida rather dilute calcium carbonate waters are again found (table 11). Table 11. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the eastern tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico A B C D E F O H I HC03- 1 SOr 1 118 23 .1 10 .7 44 3.8 5.0 .3 .04 7.6 54 3.2 .1 2.7 .6 17 1.0 2.7 .8 .05 8.7 20 4.5 .1 3.3 1.2 3.8 1.3 4.9 1.5 .05 11 57 .6 .1 3.9 .5 16 .8 3.8 1.1 .096 7.9 63 4.2 .0 2.6 .6 15 4.3 2.6 1.0 .04 7.1 47 4.4 .1 1.9 .7 12 2.8 2.3 1.1 .03 7.5 20 3.1 .0 1.4 .24 3.8 1.2 2.5 1.0 .02 10 63 6.0 2.8 .57 17.0 1.7 7.7 2.2 .58 22 45 13 F-i .1 CI-' 12 NO3-1 .3 Ca*» 13 Mg*» Na« 2.2 9.9 K+< Fe. 1.7 .392 SiOi 8.6 Total dissolved 213 90.9 51.7 91.8 100 79.8 43.3 124 106 A. D. o. Withlacoochee River near Holder, Fla. Oct. 1950 to Dec. 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955c). Flint River at Bainbridge, Ga. Oct. 1941 to Sept. 1942. Collins, Howard, and Love (1943). Chattahoochee River at Columbus, Qa. Weighted average for Oct. 1940 to Sept. 1941. Collins, Howard, and Love (1943). Apalachicola River at State Highway 20 near Blounstown, Fla. Dec. 17, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes Ag, 0.00011 ppm; Al, 0.073 ppm; B, 0.0050 ppm; Ba, 0.042 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0022 ppm; Cu, 0.0021 ppm; Li, 0.000096 ppm; Mn, 0.0050 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.0046 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb, 0.0062 ppm; Rb, 0.0010 ppm; Sr, 0.034 ppm; Ti, <0.0008 ppm. Conasauga River at Tilton, Ga. Oct. 1942 to Sept. 1943. Howard and Love (1945). Oostanaula River at Rome, Ga. Oct. 1941 to Sept. 1942. Collins and Love (1944). Etowah River near Cartersville, Ga. Oct. 1938 to Sept. 1939. Lamar (1944). H. Tombigbee River near Epes, Ala. Analysis recalculated from Clarke (1924b). I. Mobile River at Mt. Vernon Landing, Ala. Dec. 16, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison, 1960. Analysis includes Ag, 0.00013 ppm; Al, 0.186 ppm; B, 0.0033 ppm; Ba, 0.075 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0020 ppm; Cu, 0.0035 ppm; Li, 0.0017 ppm; Mn, 0.041 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.0069 ppm; P, <0.098 ppm; Pb, 0.015 ppm; Rb, 0.0013 ppm; Sr, 0.068 ppm; Ti, 0.0036 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. MISSISSIPPI RIVER DRAINAGE Some recent fairly complete analyses for the Mis- sissippi system are presented in tables 12-15. An older set of data from the Mississippi River is included in table 15(H), because it is the best information about the mean composition of this remarkable river. It needs to be replaced by a complete modern analysis of water collected over a period of 12 months. The Mississippi basin is moderately well watered and is underlain largely by sedimentary rocks. The result is usually water with hundreds of parts per million total dissolved solids. The salts making up the dissolved material vary considerably, but sulfate tends to be more important than carbonate in the Ohio and its tributaries, and also in the tributaries of the more arid parts of the western Mississippi drainage (E, table 14). In most Mississippi waters, calcium is the dominant cation, though again there are exceptions, with sodium becoming more important in the arid parts. In highly industrialized parts of the Ohio branch, some waters (G, table 13) are concentrated by pollution and contain a great deal of chloride as well as sulfate and bicarbonate. In Pennsylvania (C-E, table 13), acid mine wastes contribute much sulfate to some rivers. Table 12. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Ohio River, main stem A B C D E F G H HC0 3 -1 5 124 .2 14 2.3 29 8.3 18 2.3 .03 1.3 .50 6.8 25 126 .3 15 1.9 32 8.6 18 2.8 .05 34 126 .3 48 2.1 46 10.0 30 3.2 .06 29 68 .3 19 4.6 27 6.0 17 2.6 .12 63 69 .5 19 2.0 33 7.7 15 3.6 .06 64 71 .3 20 2.3 35 6.7 15 3.1 .17 100 58 .4 19 2.0 38 9.0 12 2.6 .05 92 SOr' 58 F-i. .4 Cl-i 18 NO3-1 2.0 Ca« 39 Mg+» 8.4 Na« 13 K+' 2.6 Fe .05 Al Mn Si02 6.7 6.2 7.3 7.9 5.7 6.2 6.0 Total dissolved 211 236 306 181 221 223 247 240 A. Ohio River at South Heights (17], Pa. Mean of 36 analyses. Oct. 1945 to Sept. 1946. Pennsylvania State Planning Board (1947, p. 122). B. Ohio River at Dam 13 [114]. Analyses B-H represent 12-day weighted averages for Sept. 18-29, 1950, and are from Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Com- mission (1950 |1951], table 2). C. Ohio River at Dam 19 [1921. F. Ohio River at Dam 43 [633]. D. Ohio River at Dam 31 [3591. G. Ohio River at Shawneetown, DU. [858]. E. Ohio River at Dam 39 [531]. H. Ohio River at Dam 53 [963]. The figures in brackets represent the distance in miles below Pittsburgh, Pa. Table 13. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Ohio drainage of the Mississippi system A B C D E F G HC03-1 _. 45 19 .1 95 1.1 28 5.9 45 2.8 .08 18 47 .1 25 .5 20 4.2 14 2.1 .26 279 .2 7.4 2.6 47 17 16 3.9 .56 1 70 .1 2.0 2.6 17 5.5 2.0 1.3 .07 1.3 .6 6.8 2 108 .1 3.6 2.7 21 7.4 13 1.9 .10 61 74 .3 7.7 13 36 9.8 7.8 2.8 .06 85 SOr 2 - 136 F-' .5 ci-> 477 N0 3 -1 5.1 Ca« 201 Mg« 16 Na« K« Fe.. - 141 4.4 .07 Al... Mn .13 4.6 2.2 12 .4 4.8 .00 6.2 .05 SiOi 3.5 6.6 Total dissolved solids. . 246 136 338 110 165 218 1,072 A. Allegheny River at Warren, Pa. Oct. 1943 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). B. Clarion River near Plney, Pa. Oct. 1946 to Sept. 1947. U.S. Geol. Survey (1952) . C. Klskiminetas River at Leechburg, Pa. Oct. 1946 to Sept. 1947. U.S. Geol. Survey, (1952). D. Casselman River at Hamedsvllle, Pa. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Sur- vey (1954b). E. Youghlogheny River at Sutersvllle, Pa. Oct. 1947 to Sept. 1948. U.S. Geol. Survey (1953a). F. Mahoning River at Warren, Ohio. Oct. 1946 to Sept. 1947. U.S. Geol. Survey (1952). G. Tuscarawas River at Newcomerstown, Oblo. Oct. 1946 to Sept. 1947. U.S. Geol. Survey (1952). CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES Table 14. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the northwestern part of the Mississippi system G15 A B C D E F G II I J K L M N COj-' 4.4 143 179 .3 10 2.2 53 16 5.5 4.5 .03 17 6.0 124 133 .2 .5 1.6 32 14 50 2.5 .02 12 107 73 .3 .8 1.8 14 6.0 46 11 .23 9.8 27.5 110 125 .3 2.0 2.6 21 7.8 SO 6.6 .22 10 149 637 .6 55 2.0 185 42 102 4.5 .03 16 1 249 76 .6 5.7 1.8 18 1.7 108 5.7 .16 41 206 396 .9 32 2.1 107 31 100 9.8 .02 26 3 244 64 1.1 7.6 2.4 53 15 34 10 .06 49 HCOj-' 136 30 .2 4.3 7.9 37 11 5.9 4.4 .25 12 152 26 .1 11 6.1 42 9.9 9.6 4.1 .11 12 165 40 .3 4.4 .6 40 11 15 3.2 .02 24 120 56 .2 4.5 .8 35 8.2 19 1.9 .04 18 191 1,000 195 SOr' - 111 F-' .4 ei-i 40 11 179 32 309 4.6 184 NOj" 1 --- 1.8 Ca« 77 Mr' 13 Na*"__ - 131 K>i Fe 9.6 .07 SiOi - -- 21 249 273 304 264 >1, 770 484 376 269 393 1.190 509 911 483 744 A. Iowa River at Iowa City, Iowa. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Qeol. Survey (1955b). Cedar River at Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955b). Wind River at Dubois, Wyo. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geo]. Survey (1954a). Wind River at Riverton, Wyo. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). Fivemile Creek near Shoshone, Wyo. Oct. 1949 to Sent. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955b). Bighorn River at Thermopolis, Wyo. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). Little Missouri River at Medora, N. Dak. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). H. Heart River near South Heart, N. Dak. Oct. 1947 to Sept. 1948. U.S. Geol Survey (1953a). I. Grand River at Shadehill, S. Dak. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). J. Cheyenne River near Hot Springs, S. Dak. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954a). K. White River near Kadoka, S. Dak. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955b). L. South Platte River at Julesburg, Colo. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Oeol. Survey (1954a). M. Republican River at Trenton, Kans. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Oeol. Survey (1954a). N. Saline River near Wilson, Kans. Feb. 1918 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955b). Table 15. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from '.he lower Mississippi Rive r and Us tributari es A B C D E F G H I J K L HCOr 1 174 16 . 1 6.4 1. 6 42 11 8. 1 2. 4 .07 18 169 4.7 . 1 3.9 1.9 36 12 42 1.5 .07 9. 1 177 48 . 1 2.8 2.0 31 17 49 1.7 . 11 12 150 5.4 .0 3.3 2.7 30 13 3.0 1.7 .05 10 21 3.6 Tr. 2.3 1.3 5.9 1.2 2.3 1.0 .09 7. 1 196 20 .4 46 1.2 49 10 12 3.6 .04 15 104 53 . 2 159 3.0 44 9.6 95 3.5 . 14 9.3 116 25. 5 10.3 2.7 34 8.9 }l3. 8 . 14 11. 7 101 41 . 1 15 1.9 34 7.6 I 11 \ 3.1 .02 5.9 28 43 .3 2.6 1.9 6.3 1.5 46 1.0 .04 7. 5 26 5.8 .2 42 2.0 7. 1 1.9 4 1 1.2 .03 7.6 4 SOr 2 7.2 F- 1 .. . 1 CI- 1 . 486 NOr 1 1. 5 Ca+ 2 48 Mg+ 2 . 13 Na +1 K+> 238 11 Fe- .07 SiO. 16 Total dissolved solids. 280 243 253 219 45. 8 312 481 223 221 58 60. 1 825 A. St. Francis River at Marked Tree, Ark. Nov. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). B. White River at Batesville, Ark. Oct. 1945 to Sept. 1946. U.S. Geol. Survey (1950 [1951]). C. Black River at Black River, Ark. Oct. 1945 to Sept. 1946. U.S. Geol. Survey (1950 [1951]). D. White River at Newport, Ark. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). E. Little Red River near Heber Springs, Ark. Nov. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). F. Cimarron River at Ute Park, N. Mex. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). G. Arkansas River at Dardanelle, Ark. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1953b) . RIO GRANDE BASIN Rainfall is light in the Rio Grande basin and most of its waters are quite concentrated, at least during seasons of low discharge. Representative data pre- sented in table 16 show that the more dilute waters, with total dissolved salts less than 1,000 ppm, tend to be calcium bicarbonate ones, whereas the more con- centrated waters, such as waters from the Pecos, are domi- nated by calcium sulfate or sodium sulfate. The more concentrated stations on the Pecos have a high content of chloride as well, partly because of the regional lith- ology, but none of the rivers can be characterized as a sodium chloride water as table 17 shows, although there are sodium chloride waters, at least locally, in the Rio Grande basin. H. Mississippi River at New Orleans. Mean of 52 composite samples taken daily between Apr. 23, 1905 and Apr. 28, 1906. J. S. Porter, analyst. Recalculated from Clarke, 1924b. I. Mississippi River just above bridge on U.S. Highway 190, near Baton Rouge, La. March 13, 1959. Durum, Heidel, and Tison, 1960. Analysis also in- cludes Ag, 0.000 ppm; Al, 1.010 ppm; B, 0.015 ppm; Ba, 0.072 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.006 ppm; Cu, 0.0090 ppm; Li, 0.0018 ppm; Mn, 0.04R ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.013 ppm; P, <0.184 ppm; Pb, 0.004 ppm; Rb, 0.0074 ppm; Sr, 0.061 ppm; Ti, 0.072 ppm; V, <0.0055 ppm; and Zr, 0.000 ppm. J. Ouachita River near Malvern, Ark. Oct. 1946 to Sept. 1947. U.S. Geol. Survey (1952). K. Ouachita River at Arkadelphia, Ark. Oct. 1959 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). L. Smackover Creek near Smackover, Ark. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). COLORADO RIVER BASIN Precipitation in the basin of the Colorado River is spatially variable. This variability is reflected in the quality of its water. Even the few selected data in table 18 show a twentyfold range in the yearly mean concentration of two rivers. Once again the dilute waters are calcium bicarbonate, with sodium, sulfate, and chloride important where the concentration is greater. NORTE AMERICAN CLOSED BASINS The waters of the closed basins of western North America may be conveniently considered as a unit. Some of the more nearly complete recent analyses are presented in tables 19, 20, 21, and 22. (See also Lenore Lake and Soap Lake, table 23.) Additional analyses G16 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 16. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Rio Grande and its tributaries A B C D E F G H 1 J HC03- 1 121 84 .5 10 1.5 39 8.4 29 5.4 .5 32 134 61 . 5 6.4 1. 1 41 8.4 20 3.5 .04 23 158 7.1 .5 5. 1 . 4 40 4.7 12 3. 1 .03 26 183 130 .5 25 2.0 65 12 49 4.8 .05 27 102 733 . 4 59 .7 266 39 48 3.2 .05 13 95 1,020 . 4 90 1.0 366 54 60 4.7 . 17 19 139 1,620 .7 755 4.2 497 139 488 10 .07 20 140 1,710 .7 1,290 5.5 481 174 828 22 .7 19 113 2,040 1.2 1,530 2. 5 601 200 926 24 .09 19 183 SOr 2 238 F-' Cl- 1 171 NO3- 1 Ca+ 2 109 Mg+ 2 . 24 Na +1 . .-_ 117 K+ 1 6.7 Fe -- 1 2.7 S1O2-- - - -- 30 Total dissolved solids.. 331 299 257 498 1,264 1,710 3,673 4,671 5,457 881 1 Calculated from combined FeiCh+AbOj on basis that Fe alone was present. A. Rio Grande near Lobatos, Colo. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). B. Rio Grande at Otowi Bridge near San Ildefonso, N. Mex. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). C. Rio Guadalupe at its mouth near Jemez Springs, N. Mex. June 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). D. Rio Grande at San Acacia, N. Mex. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954c). E. Pecos River near Guadalupe, N. Mex. Oct 1942 to Sept. 1943. Howard and Love (1954). F. Pecos River below Alamogordo Dam, N. Mex. Oct. 1943 to Sept. 1944. U.S. Geol. Survey (1947 [1948]). G. Pecos River near Artesia, N. Mex. Oct. 1943 to Sept. 1944. U.S. Geol. Survey (1947 [1948]). H. Pecos River at Red Bluff, N. Mex. Oct. 1943 to Sept. 1944. U.S. Geol. Survey (1947 [1948]). I. Pecos River near Orla, Tex. Oct. 1944 to Sept. 1945. U.S. Geol. Survey (1949b). J. Rio Grande at Laredo, Tex. Analysis recalculated from Clarke (1924b). Table 17.- — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of water from west Texas and Mexico [Analyses A-H are from Deevey (1957, p. 278, 283), which also contains several analyses and some less complete ones, Guatemalan Lakes] A B C D E F G H I HC0 3 -' 56. 3,930 12, 990 . 149 .030 954 7. 8 }9, 200 90. 1 1.0 24. 5 . 179 . 148 19 . 2 28.3 158.6 555 560 . 176 .085 38 . 1 642 153.7 968 378 . 176 .045 186 3.5 544 156. 1 995 13, 090 .298 .025 308 71.6 8,250 86.8 24. 17. 1 458 2 21.3 252.3 12. 4 17.0 70.8 SOr 2 2, 959. Cl-' 138.3 NO3- 1 P (total) Ca+ 2 . .080 14 1. 2 36.8 .020 3.2 2. 5 175.3 . 079 2. 1. 1 110. 2 813.0 Mg+ 2 Na +1 -_. --- 253. 4 f 104.9 \ 2.7 K+i AI0O3 20. Fe . 1. 082 1.7 . 245 47. 6 . 142 16.3 .280 23. 6 . 140 25 . 105 10 . 175 14 . 175 50 Si0 2 . 69. 5 Density . - 1. 005 Total dissolved solids 27, 100 211 1,970 2,260 22, 900 190 675 445 4,430 A. B. C. D. E. Salt Flat ditch, Hudspeth County, Tex., June 12, 1940. Intermittent stream in Fern Canyon, Jeff Davis Countv, Tex., June 19, 1940. Balmorhefi Lake, Jeff Davis County, Tex., June 21, 1940. Fort Stockton Lake, Pecos Countv, Tex., June 20, 1940. La Sal Vieja, Willacy Countv, Tex., Nov. 27, 1941. F. G. H. I. Presa de Hipolitom Coanuila, Mexico, June 19, 1941. Lake Patzcuaro, Miehoacan, Mexico, July 13, 1940. Lake Chapala, Jalisco, Mexico, July 13, 1940. Laguna Chicban Kanab, Yucatan. Analysis from Pasqucl (1950, table facing p. 208). Table 18. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Colorado River system and the Sacramento River A B C D E F G H I HCOa-i- 42 5.2 .3 1.1 0.8 9.6 1.9 3.8 2.7 .00 .14 107 101 .2 38 1.3 55 11 26 3.5 .00 .06 256 794 .2 24 2 148 81 1166 \ 6.1 179 230 .3 49 2.2 75 28 70 4.0 235 231 .3 70 1.9 91 28 80 5.8 1(13 256 .3 75 1.4 S4 27 88 2.9 183 289 .2 113 1.0 94 30 124 4.4 .052 .01 .012 14 79 11 .4 7.1 .6 12.9 7.0 10.5 1.3 .10 .08 .06 19 62 so,-» S.2 F-' Cl-' .0 4 NOj-i Ca+i .0 14 Mg+> Na+i K» B. .9 .010 Fe .06 .03 .09 .05 Al 0.60 SiOi 9.3 7.4 9.9 12 14 13 20 Total dissolved 76.8 351 1,490 650 757 711 853 149 117 Colorado River at Hot Sulfur Springs, Colo. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1953b). B. Eagle River below Gypsum, Colo. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1953b). C. San Rafael River near Green River, Utah. Oct. 1948 to Sept. 1949. U.S. Geol. Survey (1953b). D. Colorado River at Lees Ferry, Ariz. Oct. 1919 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954d[1955]). E. Colorado River near Grand Canyon, Ariz. Oct 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954d [1955]). F. Yuma main canal below Colorado River siphon at Yuma, Ariz. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954d [1955]). G. Colorado River at bridge on U.S. Highway 80 at Yuma, Ariz. Sept. 16, 1958. Durum, Heidcl, and Tison (1960). Analvsis includes AG, 0.0010 ppm; Ba, 0.152 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.024 ppm; Cu, 0.0088 ppm; Li, 0.035 ppm; Mn, 0.021 ppm; Mo, 0.0069 ppm; Ni, 0.030 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb, <0.0080/ppm; Rb, <0.0080 ppm; Sr, 0.802 ppm; Ti, <0.0080 ppm; and Zr, 0.000 ppm; H. Sacramento River at Rio Vista, Calif., 1956. California Dept. of Water Resources (1957, p. A-282). I. Sacramento River at tower bridge on Capital Street, Sacramento, Calif. Nov. 25, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes AG, <0.000086 ppm; Ba, 0.031 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0044 ppm; Cu, 0.0029 ppm; Li 0.0021 ppm; Mn, 0.0063 ppm; Mo <0.00043 ppm; Ni, 0.0071 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb, 0.0045 ppm; Rb, 0.0010 ppm; Sr, 0.046 ppm; Ti, <0.00086 ppm; and V, <0.086 ppm. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES Table 19. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Basin-Range province and adjacent closed basins G17 A B C D E F G II I J K L M N P HC03-1 232 4,139 1.6 9.033 1.2 ■ 8, 166 <10 1 6, 668 21.8 126,430 7,530 23 15, 100 2.4 38 11 32 96 8.5 21,400 1,120 157 .21 .0 1. 0470 69 8.5 .2 1.0 .2 '187 4,960 4.9 21, 400 •639 257 4.8 109 .50 56 2.0 .1 3.5 .1 48 1.0 .1 2.2 .0 571 135 1,725 '1,390 264 .8 1,960 1.6 '870 1.6 7.0 22 2.2 '1,200 307 10 1,160 .4 1 2, 040 676 6.0 3.330 3.5 53 1.2 6,296 103, 680 SOr' F-i _._ C1-' 905 5,945 1.2 .3 1,668 NOj POr J Ca*» 505 581 8 24 5.3 1.2 3,390 731 360 Nil 30.7 13 2.6 1,230 148 2.0 .2 .24 .16 423 17.1 .84 9.2 3.2 8.4 2.7 20 18 10 113 4.5 49 6.9 .9 17 8.8 7.5 2.9 Mg" 22,838 Sr+« Li« 1.9 6.249 112 5.0 Na+i 6.199 332 221 9.2 2.3 .10 14, 100 594 60 6.1 1.6 .00 .00 9.6 4.3 1.4 .00 .03 16 1,321 70 1,630 134 220 59 .03 .03 10 1,370 11 19 1.3 63 3,180 7.5 38 .08 28 6.5 2.1 7,337 891 K+i B __ Fe 28 .00 1.4 SiOj 20.8 1.012 20 1.006 41 49 70.0 33 Specific gravity _. 1.009 Total dissolved solids.. 20. 900 13, 600 >19.400 71, 900 147 42,700 1,520 90.4 84.1 3,890 5,510 1,250 4, 1J0 9,240 108 > 143, 000 ' Includes COj. A. Salton Sea near Nullett Island, Imperial County, Calif. Collected Feb. 3, 1954. I. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis by Henry Kramer. B. Little Boras- Lake, Lake County, Calif. Collected Oct. 6, 1956. Unpublished J. U.S. Geol. Survey analysis by C. E. Roberson. K. C. Borax Lake, Lake County, Calif. Collected Mar. 24, 1954. Unpublished U.S Geol. Survey analysis by Henry Kramer. L. D. Mono Lake near Lee Vining, Mono County, Calif. Collected Sept. 11, 1956. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. Cu and Zn looked for but not found. M. E. Rush Creek near Mono Lake, Calif. Collected Oct. 21, 1953. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955a). N. F. Pons at Bad Water, Death Valley, Calif. Collected April 17, 1954. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955a). O. G. Amargosa River near Beatty, Nev. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. H. South end of Lake Tahoe at Bijou, Nev. Collected Sept. 21, 1953. U.S. Geol. P. Survey (1955a). Truckee River at Farad, Calif. Collected Sept. 22, 1953. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955a). Winnemucca Lake, Nev. Clarke (1924b, p. 160). Pyramid Lake at Sutclifle, Nev. Collected Sept. 19, 1955. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. Eagle Lake near Susanville, Calif. Collected May 4, 1954. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. Lower Alkali Lake near Eagleville, Calif. Collected May 5, 1954. U.S. Geol. Survey, (1955a). Middle Alkali Lake near Cedarville, Calif. Collected May 5, 1954. U.S. Geol. Survey (1955a). Abert Lake near Valley Falls, Oreg. Collected Aug. 21, 1956. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. Hot Lake, Wash. Collected Aug. 22, 1955. Analysis by Bur. Reclamation, Eng. Laboratories Branch, Denver, Colo., in Anderson (1958, p. 267). Table 20. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Devil's Lake basin, North Dakota, from Swenson and Colby (1955) A B C D E F G H co 3 - 2 125. 1 539.0 4, 977. 9 73 708 7,360 1.4 1,600 3.0 120 708 3,470 216 .40 49 230 8.4 . 2 1.5 1.6 42 14 8.2 14 .04 12 358 1,410 3,600 .8 800 3.0 80 92 2,810 104 .60 38 223 194 .6 21 6.6 45 36 71 15 .02 25 43 HCOr 1 1,424 13, 600 1.4 2, 870 74 110 1,420 6,180 41 .05 14 565 3,460 .6 787 2.7 60 306 1,680 176 .04 9.4 464 SOr 2 13 000 F- 1 3. 4 ci- 900. 3 1 670 NOr 1 2 1 Ca+ 2 26.3 530. 5 2, 108. 3 199. 7 14. 8 26.6 41 Mg+ 2 590 Na +1 6 370 K+> 185 Fe . 09 Si0 2 17 Total dissolved solids. 9,450 25, 700 7,050 14, 300 332 9,300 637 22 400 Devils Lake, 1907. Devils Lake, Nov. 20, 1948. Devils Lake, July 7, 1950. Black Tieer Bay, Township 152. E. Dry Lake, Township 155. F. Free Peoples Lake, Township 151. G. Round Lake, Township 153. H. Stink Lake, Township 155. Table 21. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from concentrated lakes in British Columbia [All of these analyses are recalculated from Cummings (1940)] A B C D E F G H HCOr 1 53, 600 Trace 800 Trace Trace 20, 900 118, 330 6,240 6,660 102, 810 25, 470 7,240 10, 280 8,360 520 380 160 7,440 3,020 195, 710 1,690 2,400 160, 800 200 Trace 34, 900 10, 900 6,200 203, 900 700 Trace 34, 200 34, 400 1 800 sor 2 85 700 ci-> 1 100 Ca+ 2 800 Mg+ 2 _ 470 48, 280 4,630 1. 108 890 52, 880 1,760 1. 146 42, 400 13, 660 1,570 1. 283 14 500 Na +1 .. . 13 800 K+» Specific gravity at 16° C 1. 0485 1. 022 1. 1895 1. 240 1. 1075 Total dissolved solids. >75, 300 > 185, 000 > 191, 000 >27, 100 >258, 000 > 209, 000 >279, 000 > 118, 000 A. B. C. D. Eighty-Three Mile Lake, Green Timber Plateau (p. 6). Goodenough Lake, Green Timber Plateau (p. 8). Last Chance Lake, Green Timber Plateau (p. 16). Long Lake, Green Timber Plateau (p. 25). 643862—62 i E. Basque Lake No. 1, near Asheroft (p. 45). F. Lake No. 7 north of Kamloops (p. 51). G. Iron Mask Lake near Kamloops (p. 36). H. Lake No. 4, near Iron Mask Lake (p. 37). G18 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 22. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from closed lakes of Saskatchewan [All these analyses are from Rawson and Moore (1944). Tho same paper contains about 45 less complete analyses of southern Saskatchewan lake waters] A B C D E F H COr' 236 554 51,720 23, 295 514 11, 160 17,950 1,017 159 20 96.2 483 9,086 147 71.5 1,590 1,547 110 6.3 4 37.2 296 5,009 65 121 1,018 411 180 8.4 17 34.4 364 1,302 178 44.0 167 527 16.6 3.9 14 16.0 274 594 105 59.9 70.8 252 22.4 1.7 10 45.8 387 581 13.5 21.9 141 160 28.2 1.4 7.8 28.0 243 361 8.7 36.0 7.5 89.7 7.5 .6 6.8 HCOj-i 173 SOr 2 CI-' 2.75 3.75 o+» .. 25.3 Mg+> 3.43 Na« 7.3 K+i 3.43 Fei .6 SiOj . 5.9 Total dissolved 107, 000 13,100 7,160 2,650 1,410 1,390 789 225 'Calculated from analytical results expressed as combined FeiCh and AI1O3 on the assumption that Fe:Oa only was present. A. Little Manitou Lake, July 7, 1940. E. B. Eedberry Lake, June 13, 1940. F. C. Stoney Lake, July 1, 1940. O. D. Last Mountain Lake, July 11, 1940. H. Echo Lake, July 6, 1940. Jackfish Lake, May 29, 1940. Murray Lake, Aug. 11, 1940. Montreal Lake, July 1940. are given in the early editions of this book and in Car- pelon (1958). Some incomplete analyses of sodium sulfate lakes may be found in Tomkins (1954). The arid-land lakes are remarkable not only for their high concentrations of dissolved salts, but for the great variation in the composition of these salts. These standing waters have a long history of evaporation, in the course of which the less soluble salts have been precipitated and lost to the solution. Some of them may subsequently have been freshened by the addition of dilute water, and then concentrated again. The out- come of even a simple one-step concentration by evapo- ration depends to a great extent on the exact proportions of the ions in the original solutions, so a wide variety of results is possible. A water that has been modified greatlyin this wayis sometimes said tobe highly evolved. COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN AND OTHEE NORTHWESTERN WATERS A selection of analyses for the Columbia River system is presented in table 23. Most of the basin is well watered and the rivers tend to be dilute calcium bicar- bonate waters, although there are some rather arid parts of the basin as demonstrated by Soap Lake. The other northwestern waters listed in table 24 are also dilute calcium bicarbonate ones, although some, such as the Fraser River at New Westminster, British Co- lumbia, contain considerable magnesium. It should be remembered, however, that there is no sharp line of division between these dilute rivers of the well-watered coast and the very concentrated closed lakes of the in- terior. The coastal waters have been analyzed because they are used for municipal water supplies; the interior lakes have been analyzed because they form a source of commercial salts. Waters of intermediate salinity are less likely to attract the attention of chemical analysts, and so there are no data for them. ALASKA WATERS A selection of analyses of lakes and rivers in Alaska is presented in table 25. Most of the waters are of the calcium bicarbonate types, except at the coast, where sea spray may be very important, or where local bedrock geology exerts a strong influence. Notice, in the latter connection, Gypsum Creek on the Glenn Highway. Although there are some significant de- partures from it, a tendency exists for the humid Table 23.- — Analyses, in oarts per million, of water from the Columbia River system A B C D E F G H 1 J K L HCO3- 1 SO4-2 F- 1 67. 7 18.0 103 12 . 2 1. 3 . 4 27 6.7 r 1.9 \ 1.5 63. 4 8.9 1. 1 .62 19. 3 4.4 1 4. 2 95 4.5 .2 . 8 . 4 23 6.0 f 1.1 \ 1.3 <• 1 .04 5. 5 85 9.0 . 3 1.2 . 5 21 5. 7 2.5 2.2 116.5 19. 2 66 9. 4 69 12 108 19 . 5 4.9 .3 23 6.2 16 .0 .0039 .280 13 212 29 1 9,110 2,180 2 17,400 6,020 CI-'-- 1. 5 . 10 18. 5 8.0 } 2. 2 1. 3 .27 30. 4 9.0 |l2. 2 2.0 . 7 17 3. 7 / 3. 2 1 2. 5 3.2 .5 17 3.9 7.5 1.8 12 1.8 30 18 1,360 3.2 3.0 20 5,360 4,680 NOr 1 Ca+ 2 Mg +2 3.9 23 Na +1 , 12, 500 K+i B Fe .07 3.8 .07 8.3 .05 5.3 .04 9. 4 .05 10.6 . 14 12 .06 9.9 Si0 2 _. 43 22 101 Total dissolved solids 120 162 107 138 137 200 117 125 191 380 IS, 000 40, 700 ' Includes 3,020 ppm COr 1 . H. ' Includes 5,130 ppm CO)-'. A. Columbia River at Golden, British Columbia. July 10, 1937. Leverin (1947), I. analysis 388. B. Kootenai River at Porthill, Idaho. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954d 119551). C. Columbia River at Trail, British Columbia. July 29, 1938. Leverin (1947), analysis 576. D. Flathead River at Columbia Falls, Mont. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. J. Survey (1954d [1955]). E. Pend Orielle River at Metaline Falls, Wash. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. K. Geol. Survey (1954d [1955]). F. Okanagan Lake at Kelowna, British Columbia. Taken at a depth of 25 ft in the L. middle of the lake, Julv 12, 1938. Leverin (1947), analysis 577. G. Similkameen River at Oroville, Wash. Oct. 1949 to Sept. 1950. U.S. Geol. Survey (1954d [1955]). Columbia River at Cascade Locks, Oreg. Aug. 11, 1911 to Aug. 14, 1912. Van Winkle (1914). Columbia River below the Dalles Dam, about 3 miles above the Dalles, Wash. Dec. 1, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes Ag, 0.00015 ppm; Al, 0.238 ppm; Ba, 0.048 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.018 ppm; Cu, 0.0038 ppm; Li, 0.0039 ppm; Mn, 0.014 ppm; Mo, 0.0021 ppm; Ni, 0.010 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb, 0.0050 ppm; Rb, 0.0014 ppm; Sr, 0.112 ppm; V, 0.0052 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. Park Lake near Coulee City, Wash. Nov. 24, 1950. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. Lenore Lake near Soap Lake, Wash. Nov. 24, 1950. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. Soap Lake near Soap Lake, Wash. Nov. 24, 1950. Unpublished U.S. Geol. Survey analysis. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G19 Table 24. — Analyses, in parts per million, of some other north- western waters A B C D E F HCOj- 1 36.0 6.4 5.5 .44 7.9 2.6 1 61.0 10.0 1.5 .00 19.8 4.5 64 7.6 .0 .5 17 2.9 1.3 .6 .11 4.5 43.9 12.8 1.2 .35 12.8 2.8 15.9 6.6 5.0 1.0 9.2 10.2 7.9 so,-' 7.4 CI-' 1.1 NOr 1 .00 Ca*» 6.4 Mg+» 2.4 Na*' _ « 1.9 4.4 K» Fe._ .03 5.6 .07 7.3 .21 3.2 .12 1.5 .05 SiOi .5 Total dissolved solids 69.2 106 98.5 81.7 >49.5 >25.8 Thompson River at Kamloops, British Columbia. July 27, 1938. Leverin (1947), analysis 579. Fraser River at Hope, British Columbia. Dec. 4, 1938. Leverin (1947), analysis 586. Fraser River at Mission City, British Columbia. Oct. 1, 1958, Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes F, 0.0 ppm; Ag. 0.00007 ppm; Al, 0.526 ppm; B, 0.011 ppm; Ba, 0.018 ppm; Co, 0.0019 ppm; Cr, 0.0060 ppm; Cu, 0.0025 ppm; Li, 0.00018 ppm; Mn, 0.032 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.012 ppm; P, 0.073 ppm; Pb. 0.0018 ppm; Rb, 0.00095 ppm; Sr, 0.018 ppm; TI, 0.016 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. Fraser River at New Westminster, British Columbia. Aug. 19, 942. Leverin (1947), analysis 899. Untreated water supply of Nanaimo, British Columbia, from a dam 3 miles from the city. Sept. 6, 1938. Leverin (1947J, analysis 553. Untreated water supply of Prince Rupert, British Columbia, from a lake 7 miles from the city. July 16, 1943. Leverin (1947), analysis 968. coastal regions of southern Alaska to have very dilute water with about 25 ppm of total dissolved solids, whereas the drier interior and arctic parts have 100 or 200 ppm. The great increase in salinity over a 2-week period of Ikrowik Lake near the Arctic coast at Point Barrow is probably due to sea-spray transport by summer gales during the short ice-free season. MACKENZIE AND HUDSON BAY DRAINAGES The information available for the Mackenize River system (table 26) suggests that the waters are a calcium bicarbonate type of moderate dilution. The two analyses from the Mackenize River show it to be remarkably similar to the lower Mississippi River in concentration and suggest that the Mackenzie River must have some tributaries more highly concentrated than the ones which have been analyzed. Table 25. — Analyses, in parts per million, of Alaskan waters A B C D E F G H I J K HCOr 1 8 2.4 .1 14 .3 12 4.1 .1 40 .2 122 3.2 .1 21 .4 .0 31 9.4 8.0 .04 .00 1.0 24 9.1 .4 1.5 .4 .0 5.6 3.2 2.5 .03 .00 .4 121.8 27.6 .02 1.6 .72 113.5 17.1 .02 4.6 .73 129 29 .1 2.2 .8 171 22 .1 .7 .3 <.195 47 8.9 / 3.2 I 1.4 .18 .181 13 67.8 17.6 .2 7.2 .74 56 16 .1 1.3 .66 57 SOr» 16 F-i .1 Cl-i .9 NOj-i .9 POr 3 Ca+» 2.5 1.9 } 7.0 .05 .00 .0 5.9 3.9 18 .01 .00 .9 35.9 8.7 4.0 .08 31.2 6.0 7.3 .02 38 7.9 5.3 .05 22.9 3.4 } 7.2 .20 18 3.2 1.8 .04 19 Mg+»_ 3 Na+> K+i 2.9 Fe .02 Mn SiOi _ 7.4 11.0 12 8.0 3.9 9.2 36.3 85.1 196 47.1 208 192 224 268 135 101 109 L M N O P Q R S T U V W HCOj-i _ 11 2.1 .4 1.0 1.2 28 7.7 .1 1.2 1.70 11 1.8 40 29 .1 1.1 .63 26 7 22 18 8 3.1 7 1.8 12 2.6 8 1.8 10 S0r J 2,820 2 F-i C1-" 6.5 .8 .1 .3 .0 4 .2 1 .1 2.2 .2 1.5 .1 1.8 .1 1.2 NOs-' .2 POr> Ca+>._ _ 2.6 } 1.8 .11 10.1 1.1 2.4 .05 378 268 4.4 .6 1.5 .08 20 4.2 2.9 .01 8.5 1.1 1.8 7.5 2 7.1 1.2 .9 2.1 .8 .6 2.7 .00 2.8 .6 2.3 .8 .8 2.5 1.2 Mg+» _ .8 Na+> K>> Fe .54 .01 Mn _ SiOi _ _ 6.2 3.9 73 2.9 2.9 4 3.3 1 .9 .6 1 1.7 27.4 SR. 3 >3 550 23.1 101 48.7 64.1 17.4 16.2 22.5 16.8 19.4 A. Brrowik Lake near Point Barrow. June 30, 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey analysis J. quoted In Livingstone, Bryan, and Leahy (195S). B. ttrowik Lake near Point Barrow. July 13, 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey analysis K. quoted in Livingstone, Brvan, and Leahy (1958). C. East Oumalik Lake, near edge of Arctic Coastal Plain. July 26, 1951. U.S. L. Geol. Survey analysis quoted in Livingstone, Bryan, and Leahy (1958). M. D. Chandler Lake, Brooks Range. Aug. 22, 1951. U.S. Geol. Survey analysis quoted in Livingstone, Bryan, and Leahy (1958). N. E. Yukon River at Eagle. Mean of the analyses of 16 composite samples, Apr. O. to Sept. 195!. Whetstone (1951). F. Tanana River near Tok Junction. Mean of the analyses of 13 composite sam- P. pies, Mar. to Sept. 1951. Whetstone (1951). O. Tanana River at Big Delta. Mean of the analyses of 35 composite samples, Q. Oct. 1950 to Sept. 1951. Whetstone (1951). R. H Yukon River at Mountain Villaee, Alaska. Jan. 7, 1959. Durum, ITeidel, and S. Ti?on (1960). Analysis includes Ag, <0.0002 ppm; Al, <0.082 ppm; B, 0.013 T. ppm; Ba, 0.109 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0070 ppm; Cu, 0.0026 ppm; Li, 0.0020 ppm; Mo, 0.0012 ppm; Ni, 0.017 ppm; Pb, 0.0086 ppm; Rb, 0.000 ppm; U. Sr, 0.123 ppm; Ti, <0.0020 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. V. 1 Susitna River at O old Creek. Mean of the analyses of 9 composite samples, W. May to Sept. 1951. Whetstone (1951). Eklutna Creek at Eklutna Lake near Palmer. Mean of the analyses of 11 composite samples, Dec. 1950 to Sept. 1951. Whetstone (1951). Ship Creek near Anchorage. Mean of the analyses of 31 composite samples, Oct. 1950 to July 1951. Whetstone (1951). Brown Slough at Bethel, Sept. 13, 1951. Whetstone (1951). Kenai River at Cooper Landing. Mean of the analyses of 6 composite sam- ples, Oct. and Nov. 1951. Whetstone (1951). Gypsum Creek, mile 112 Glenn Highway, Sept. 10, 1949. Moore (1950, p. 10). South Branch Worthington River near Wortmanns, Aug. 7, 1951. Whetstone (1951). Gold Creek, Juneau. Mean of the analyses of 3 samples. Oct. 1948 to July 1949. Moore (1950). Lemon Creek, Juneau. Oct. 10, 1948. Moore (1950). Mendenhall River, Juneau. Oct. 10, 1948. Moore (1950). Dorothy Creek, Juneau. Apr. 14, 1949. Moore (1950). Purple Creek, Metalaska. Mean of 2 analyses, one for an unspecified date in 1948, the other for Apr. 23, 1949. Moore (1950). Maybeso Creek, Hollis. Apr. 26, 1949. Moore (1950). Ella Creek near Ketchikan, Apr. 22, 1949. Moore (1950). Perseverance Creek, Ketchikan. Oct. 11, 1948. Moore (1950). G20 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 26. — Analyses, in parts per million, oj Mackenzie drainage water from the A B C D E F G H HCOr 1 SOr» 34.6 9.2 24.6 .6 1.4 88.8 16.9 12 111.5 25 12 82.5 16 6 64.8 10.2 15 132 28 .7 125 28 C1-' _ 7.5 F-i .0 NO3-' .04 Nil .9 .6 .5 Ba+2 .065 Ca+» 4.9 3.5 2.6 1 26.1 6.2 3.1 7 25 5.7 15 6.5 35.5 8.5 37 Mg+» 8.4 Li" -_ .001 Na+i 5.2 15.8 '8 12 3 U0.1 17.6 7 K+i. .9 Rb _ .0016 Fe Nil .67 .07 Tr. .04 Co .005 Cu .011 Al.._ 1 Tr. Tr. 1.41 B .013 Mn Nil .06 Cr .012 SiOi.__ .4 6.4 2 1.2 3.4 Total dissolved >57.4 36.4 166 >171 >138 125 214 219 1 Sodium by difference only. C. E. Amethyst Lake near Jasper, Alberta. July 1952. Rawson (1953, p. 198). Cree Lake, Saskatchewan. Dec. 1956. Analyst, E. C. Bailey. Rawson (1959, p. 18). Slave River at Fort Smith, Northwest Territory, Nov. 1946. Analysis bv S. S. Copp, quoted in Moore (1949, p. 4). Great Slave Lake, main lake, off Slave Delta, Northwest Territory. June 22, 1946. Rawson (1950, p. 60). Christie Bay, Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territory. July 5, 1946. Rawson (1950, p. 60). Kam Lake, Yellowknife, Northwest Territory. Aug. 1947. Rawson (1950, p. 4) . Mackenzie River at Fort Simpson, Northwest Territory. Aug. 1948. Rawson (1950, p. 4). Mackenzie River about 3 miles upstream from separation, at Arctic Red River, Northwest Territory, Canada. July 24, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni 0.036 ppm; P, 0.259 ppm; Pb, 0.0029 ppm; Sr, 0.096 ppm; Ti, 0.0084 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. Waters of the Hudson Bay drainage (table 27) range from rather dilute rivers flowing over well-watered parts of the Canadian shield, with total dissolved solids of about 50 ppm, to moderately concentrated rivers flow- ing over the less well watered sedimentary rocks of the wheatlands, such as the Assiniboine River with almost 700 ppm. Some additional analyses for Mackenzie and Hudson Bay waters may be found in Eawson (1942, 1957). WEST GREENLAND In the general absence of information from the Arctic parts of the North American continent, the analyses of Bocher (1949) from West Greenland (table 28) have a particular value. Although none of his water samples are from the extreme north of Greenland where polar desert conditions are most pronounced, they neverthe- less show some interesting trends toward the evolution of a desert water. The dilute lakes consist of a solution of sodium and calcium bicarbonate, but in the more concentrated ones calcium is almost absent, and there is considerable enrichment of the other ions. It is quite evident from the range of waters found in this pioneer- ing study that much material has to be gathered before a clear understanding of Arctic water chemistry is gained. A word of caution is in order about the high silica content of these waters. The samples had been stored in glass of an unspecified kind for many months before analysis, and it is quite possible that in Green- land, as in Arctic Alaska, silica is much lower than these figures imply. EURASIA The quality of the data from Europe and Asia is very inconsistent. The major waters of Europe were first analyzed almost a century ago, and since that time very few complete analyses for major ions have been made in western Europe. Almost the only exception to this is Britain, where, largely owing to the efforts of a single man, there exists a large amount of modern analytical data for lake waters. For the rest, it has not been possible to discover any sizable quantity of complete recent analyses, and the data that were included in the 1924 edition of this work, were almost all accumulated by workers in the 19th century. As these old analyses were made before the need for multiple sampling was recognized, many of them are spot analyses. Because they were made before the development of accurate methods for many of the minor constituents, their reliability is open to some question. It is surprising that there should be no complete modern analyses for waters in western Europe because there has been a great deal of interest and activity in water analysis during the last half century. Lim- nologists in the Alps, in northern Germany, and in Scandinavia have been extremely active, and have compiled a tremendous amount of information about the elements of biological importance. Some of these studies have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the hydrochemistry of minor elements, and we shall refer to them in a later section of this work. There has also been a great deal of strictly geochemical work dealing with one or a small number of related elements in a single river system, such as the work of Heide and his co-workers (Heide, 1952; Heide and Kaeding, 1954; Heide, Lerz and Bohm, 1957; Heide and Moencke, 1956; Heide and Singer, 1954) on the Saale, and a large amount of very important work on the geochemistry of rain in Scandinavia, but there appears to have been very little work on the general composition of lake and river waters. A partial exception is provided by the data of Ahnestrand and Lundh (1951) which are deficient only in sodium, and Coin's very interesting essay on the factors influencing water chemistry (Coin, 1946). CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G21 Table 27. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Hudson Bay drainage [Analyses P-V are unpublished data for the Churchill River drainage in Saskatchewan provided by Dr. D. S. Rawson] A B C D E F G H I J K HC03-' 11.6 7 3.6 2 7.7 2.6 } 2 .75 2.1 11 36 3 1.2 2.3 8.9 3.6 3.5 .16 3 39.7 13.5 7.7 .9 13.1 4.8 6.2 .11 1.2 83.6 186.1 26.5 .40 66 19.5 31.3 .11 6.3 45.8 8.9 1.4 .62 15.5 6 4 . 22 111 6 36.3 5.1 .8 .47 13.3 3.4 4.9 .22 4.5 64 5.6 .9 .67 17.5 6.6 3 .16 5.5 22.6 7.1 1.1 .64 8 2.6 5 .09 4.6 149 35 32 .1 35 13 25 3.1 .01 2.2 55.4 8.8 1 1.2 17.4 5.5 4.7 .15 6.1 284.7 SOr'- 204.2 Cl-i _ 14.6 NOr 1 .76 Ca*' 81.2 Mg+' 39.6 Na*> _ _ K« _.-- Fe -- .04 SiO ! _. 18.7 39.3 70 87.2 419 93.9 69 92.9 51.7 294 100 696 M HCOr 1 SOr 2 .— Cl-i — NOr 1 -— Ca+» Mg+» Na+' K>' Fe SiOj Total dissolved solids 93.3 21.2 6 1 25 9.2 9.8 .40 19.2 156.4 29.8 1.2 .44 40 12.9 7.5 .15 7.2 143.5 33.8 1.3 .44 38.2 12.3 8.7 .14 6.3 122.5 35.2 1.3 .61 36.8 11.7 7.7 .08 244.9 16.7 .7 175.8 1.03 nil 133.8 2.7 nil 105.6 2.9 nil 399 16.4 1.7 196 6.4 1.4 47.1 22.4 31.1 11.6 27 8.5 20.4 2.3 5.3 23.7 60.2 6.5 43.5 5.4 3.6 ca. 2 30.2 .7 2.9 .04 4.1 nil 19.2 nil .4 185 256 245 66 .4 1.6 .8 14 4.3 3.2 .06 1.4 91.8 ' Sodium by difference only. A. Lac Blouln at Bourlamaque, Quebec. June 20, 1939. Levcrin (1947), analysis 611. B. Lac Duiault north of Noranda, Quebec. Mean of 2 analyses, 1937-39. Leverin (1947), analyses 371, 610. C. Gull Lake at Kirkland Lake, Ontario. Mean of 2 analyses, 1937-39. Leverin (1947), analyses 372, 614. D. Pearl Lake at Timmins, Ontario. Apr. 9, 1937. Leverin (1947), analysis 370. E. Abitibi River at Iroquois Falls, Ontario. Mean of 2 analyses, 1937-39. Leverin (1947), analyses 365, 606. F. Mattagami River at Smooth Rock Falls, Ontario. Mean of 2 analyses, 1937-39. Leverin (1947), analyses 368, 607. G. Kapuskasing River at Kapuskasing, Ontario. Mean of 2 samples, 1937-39. Leverin (1947), analyses 366, 608. H. Rainy River at Fort Frances, Ontario. Mean of 3 analyses, 1937-43. Leverin (1947), analyses 358, 660, 937. I. Nelson River near Amery, Manitoba. Apr. 9, 1959. Durum, Hcidel, and Ti- son (1960). Analysis includes F, 0.0 ppm; Ag, 0.000 ppm; Al, 0.089 ppm; B, 0.0036 ppm; Ba, 0.056 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0047 ppm; Cu, 0.0042 ppm; Li, 0.0081 ppm; Mn, <0.0028 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.0078 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb, 0.022 ppm; Rb, <0.0028 ppm; Sr, 0.086 ppm; Ti, 0.0059 ppm; V, 0.000 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. J. Lake of the Woods at Kenora, Ontario. Mean of 4 analyses, 1937-43. Leverin (1947), analyses 360, 561, 562, 943. K. Lake Winnipeg at Gimli, Manitoba. Depth sample 2 miles offshore, July 27, 1937. Leverin (1947), analysis 380. L. Assiniboine River at Brandon, Manitoba. Mean of 4 analyses, 1937-43. Lev- erin (1947), analyses, 379, 671, 895, 945. M. Red Deer River at Red Deer, Alberta. Mean of 3 analyses, 1937-43. Leverin (1947), analyses 385, 572, 944. N. South Saskatchewan River at Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Mean of 4 analyses. 1937-43. Leverin (1947), analyses 382, 565, 893, 939. O. North Saskatchewan River at Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. Mean of 3 anal- yses, 1937-43. Leverin (1947), analyses 384, 567, 938. P. Beaver River at bridge east of Minnow Lake, June 3, 1957. Analyst, J. Ingram. Q. Canoe Lake, 19 miles west of Beauval, Saskatchewan. Collected in the center of the lake Aug. 13, 1957. Analyst, J. Ingram. R. Lac la Ronge. Aug. 3, 1957. Analyst, J. Ingram. S. Lac la Plonge, center of the lake. July 4, 1957. Analyst, J. Ingram. T. Little Loon Lake, 2 miles east of Glaslyn, Saskatchewan. June 23, 1939. An- alyst, J. E. Moore. U. Waskesiu Lake. May 23, 1957. Analyst, J. Ingram. V. Wollaston Lake, Fish Plant. Mar. 6, 1957. Analyst, E. C. Bailey. Rawson, 1959. W. Churchill River east of island off Drachm Point, 8 miles south of Churchill, Manitoba. Sept. 25, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis in- cludes F, 0.0 ppm; Ag, 0.00037 ppm; Al, 0.103 ppm; B, 0.013 ppm; Ba, 0.038 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0036 ppm; Cu, 0.0095 ppm; Li, 0.00095 ppm; Mn, 0.0026 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.0056 ppm; P, 0.000 ppm; Pb, 0.0040 ppm; Rb, 0.0011 ppm; Sr, 0.037 ppm; Ti, 0.0031 ppm; and Zn, 0.000 ppm. Table 28. — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of water from lakes in continental west Greenland [Analyses from Bocher (1949). Analysis I by K. R0rdam, all others by Werner Christensen] A B C D E F G H I HCOr" . 64 2 12 11 5 }12 7 37 2 7 7 4 4 10 29 4 3 2 6 9 67 6 9 13 7 6 13 43 1 6 11 4 11 317 2 154 25 41 114 15 397 2 169 30 62 / 65 I 44 13 1 1, 286 45 708 32 236 514 206 10 2 1, 966 91 SOr 8 C1-' 903 Ca+» Mg+» 308 Na+i 824 K+i _ 66 SiOj Total dissolved solids 113 71 53 121 76 668 782 3,040 4,160 ■ Includes 408 mg/1 COt. » Includes COi. A. Menyanthes Lake, elev 400 m. B. KlfSfts0erne, elev 300 m. C. Small lake with Sphagnum, elev 400 m. D. Lake near Mt. Keglen. E. Tasersuatslag. F. Lake near StrtSmfjordshavn. G. Lille Salts0, Aug. 20, 1946. H. Store SaltSf*. I. Tarajomitsog. The situation is very different in eastern Europe, where the initial exploratory phase of water chemistry was entered rather recently, after the development of rapid analytical methods. The result has been a great flood of work on the geochemistry of surface waters. Both general analyses and special studies of particular elements (see, for example, Alekin and Moricheva (1956), a careful analysis of the carbonate system) are being carried out, and there are also many important papers dealing with the principles of hydrochemistry. Unfortunately only a very small part of the published work is available in America. Another focus of hydrochemical research, the only other one in Eurasia, is in Japan. There, as in the Soviet Union, exploratory hydrochemistry using mod- ern methods is combined with serious geochemical studies, both broad and intensive. For the rest of the G22 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Eurasian landmass there are only scattered analyses, most of them incomplete. It is evident from even the small number of analyses presented in table 29 that the waters of Portugal are varied and interesting. Only the Alviela water is of a typical calcium bicarbonate type. In the others there is almost as much magnesium as calcium in three out of four waters, and there is more sodium than either magnesium or calcium in the same three. Sulfate is more important than bicarbonate in two waters, and there is a considerable amount of chloride as well. In a more dilute water these proportions of chloride, sul- fate, and sodium might be attributed to sea-spray, but in these waters, with several hundred parts per million of total dissolved solids, it is likely that the ions come from sedimentary rocks in the watersheds of the rivers. It is evident that the Iberian peninsula would repay close hydrochemical study. The British Isles have a diversity of water chemistry that befits their geology. The more concentrated waters, with several hundred parts per million of total Table 29. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Portugal [Analyses from unpublished data provided by the Laboratorio de Analises Ftsico- qulmicas e Micrograficas of the Companhia das Aguas de Lisboa] A B O D E F HCOri 104 72.4 96.5 28.4 Tr. 19.2 10.2 46.2 .10 Tr. .000 9.2 17.4 12.3 7.4 Tr. 3.2 3.3 7.5 .04 Tr. .001 8 21.4 8.4 9.6 Tr. 3.4 3.1 6.6 .20 .02 .000 10 216 11.4 39.1 2.5 58.7 10.9 26.4 .034 .00 .000 9.8 192 11.6 CI-' 24.9 3.5 62.9 14.5 J27.2 .260 .028 .000 9.8 19.5 N03-' 3.9 Ca« 36.4 Mg+ ! 3.7 Na+> 44.5 K+i - .05 Tr. AsOt .000 SiOa 3.4 Total dissolved solids . . . 365 282 59.1 62.7 375 315 A. Rio Tejo at Valada. Dec. 19, 1957. B. Rio Tejo at Valada. July 24, 1957. C. Rio ZSzere at Albufeira de Castelo de Bode. Aug. 20, 1951. D. Rio Zfesere at Albufeira de Castelo de Bode. Feb. 1, 1951. E. Alviela at Entrada dos Barbadinhos. Sept. 19, 1957. F. Alviela at Barbadinhos. Feb. 15, 1957. Table 30. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Shrop- shire meres, England [From Gorham (19C7c, p. 176)] A B C D E F HCOj-i 15.3 16.8 16.1 .13 .99 7.20 1.8 8.1 8.2 1 32.9 11 14 .89 .03 10.4 1.4 7.6 7.4 .4 34.8 13.4 13.7 .22 .012 11.6 1.4 7.6 8.6 1 63.4 28.3 16.5 7.09 .15 27.4 3.1 8.3 5.1 2.2 90.2 22.1 18.6 .22 1.2 30.4 2.6 11.3 9.8 2 185 SOr 1 49.9 C1-' 19.6 NOr 1 1.28 POc 3 - .12 Ca« - 71 Mg+> 6.2 Na +1 11 E>i 5.5 SiOj 2.4 Total dissolved solids . 75.6 86 92.3 162 188 352 A. Newton Mere, Shropshire. Nov. 1954. B. Blake Mere, Shropshire. June 1955. C. Kettle Mere, Shropshire. June 1955. D. White Mere, Shropshire. Nov. 1954. E. Ellesmere, Shropshire. June 1955. F. Crose Mere, Shropshire. June 1955. dissolved solids, are predominantly calcium bicarbon- ate types, but variations from this must be expected. Notice, for instance, the high sodium content of the Roach in Lancashire (table 34). There may be streams draining coal measures with much more sul- fate than any of the waters listed in tables 30-34. Table 31. — Miscellaneous analyses, in parts per million, of water from England [Analyses A-B are from Gorham (1956, p. 376). Analyses C-H are recalculated from Gorham (1957e, p. 23)] A B C D E F G H HCOr' Nil 10.2 5.9 Nil 17.7 5.9 Nil 13 9.8 .31 .003 1.8 .84 5.3 1.2 1 Nil 25.9 17.5 .22 .06 7.6 2.6 9 2.3 1.4 96.9 57.6 23.8 10.9 .12 38.8 12.5 12.2 3.9 8.2 122 72 23.8 2.35 .33 52 11.8 14.3 4.3 1.3 178.7 100 33.6 .35 .21 67 19.9 20.6 4.7 2.6 189.1 SOr 1 120 C1-' 45.5 NO]-' _. 2.63 POr 3 .87 Ca« .7 .6 3.8 .2 .5 3.8 .9 4.6 .5 .4 73 Mg+s . 22.6 Na +1 . 29.9 K+i 6.2 SiOa 2.6 Total dissolved solids... 21.9 33.8 33.3 66.5 265 304 428 492 A. Pool on top of bog, Bog Hill, Moor House Nature Reserve. B. Drain, Bog Hill, Moor House Nature Reserve. C. A small lake near Sandiway, Cheshire, Jan. 1955. D. Oak Mere, Cheshire. Oct. 1954. E. Budworth Pool, Cheshire. Oct. 1954. F. Rostherne Mere, Cheshire. Oct. 1954. G. Pick Mere, Cheshire. Oct. 1954. H. Budworth Mere, Cheshire. Oct. 1954. Table 32.- — Analyses, in parts per Scotland million, of water from [Data are from Gorham (1957b, p. 146). Samples were collected July 21-25, 1955, in the Cairn Gorm-Strath Spey district] HC0 3 -'. - SOr J OH NO3- 1 Ca«~ .... Mg*» Na« K+i— - SiOj— Total dissolved solids 0.2 <.06 .2 .1 .8 .2 1.9 6.3 Nil 2.8 4.7 <.05 .3 .4 2.8 .4 .9 12.4 1.0 3.1 2.7 .30 1.3 .2 2.0 .2 2.2 13 16.9 4.9 7.6 .05 5.9 .9 5.2 .8 1.2 43.6 4.7 2.5 3.8 <,05 1.4 .3 3.3 .4 3.5 :o 7.6 4.0 7.1 <05 2.7 .5 5.4 .6 6.3 32.6 5.7 9.0 .10 9.5 1.4 7.8 1.5 4.5 72.1 17.3 5.8 8.5 .05 5.8 .9 6.5 1.0 4.5 60.4 A. lyochan, Coire an Lochain, beneath Cairn Lochan. B. Lochan Dubh a' Chadha. C. Loch Einich. D. An Lochan Uaine. E. Loch Morlich. F. Loch an Eilein. G. Artificial loch at Drumintoul Lodge. H. Loch Pityoulish. Table 33. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from western Ireland [All data are from Gorham (1957d, p. 238). Samples collected May 6-8, 1956] A B C D E F G HCOj-i. Nil 7.7 20.6 .8 1.8 12.5 .6 4.4 3.2 7.3 1.8 .5 4.7 .2 6.9 3.6 10.4 3.1 .7 5.9 .3 4.6 4.6 12.7 2.8 1.1 7.1 .6 10.4 5.1 11.8 4.2 .8 7.3 .5 4.9 7.0 22.5 3.4 1.2 13.1 .6 22.0 SOr 1 - 7.4 Cl-i . 23.6 Ca*> . 8.7 Mg+> 1.5 Na+' 13.7 K>i .8 Total dissolved solids >43.9 >22.1 >30.9 >33.4 >40. 1 >52.7 >77.7 A. Blanket bog pools, Gowlan East. B. Upper Lake, Killarney. C. Muckross Lough, Killarney. D. Lough Shindilla, Connemara. E. Lough Agraffard, Connemara. F. Craiggamore Lough, Connemara. G. Garraunbaun Lough, Connemara. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G23 Table 34. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from rivers in Britain [These data are from Suckling (1943, p. 339, 341, 342)] A B C D E F a H HCO,-' 42 15.4 24.7 3.5 18.1 1.5 17.8 318 59.6 19.8 7 106 2.8 38.1 4.5 168 94 15 9 34 18 48 8 204 24 9.9 10.5 68 3 16 11 204 29 26 18 80 Tr. 24 11 294 29 24 18 110 3 17 13 180 161 71 10 41 15 122 14 492 SOr' 30 CI-' 19 NOj-i 18 Ca+» 159 Mg*i. 5 Na*i _ 31 SlOj 10 Total dissolved solids... 130 556 394 346 392 508 614 764 A. Holyford River, Devon. B. Avon River, Caine, Wiltshire. C. Taff River, Glamorganshire. D. Windrush River, Oxfordshire. E. Newbourne Stream, Suffolk. F. Colne River, Hertfordshire. G. Roach River, Lancashire. H. MuUingar Stream, Ireland. The dilute waters, particularly of lakes on resistant rocks, have a composition not very different from that of rain water, as has been pointed out by Gorham (1958). Bicarbonate is not detectable in some of these waters, which tend to be solutions of sodium sulfate and chloride. In the western part of the British Isles, where sea-spray influence is strong, sodium and chloride are the dominant ions — notice particularly the composi- tion of water from the blanket bog pools of Gowlan East in western Ireland. All the waters of western Ireland show the same tendency, and it is detectable in Scotland even as far from the sea as the Cairn Gorms (Loch Bubh a' Chadha, for example) where direct sea spray cannot be of significance and the sodium chloride is carried in the rain. For the rest of western Europe we must depend on the old analyses, except for Ohle's 1935 analysis of Tonteich, although there exists a huge body of more recent data that does not include all of the major ions. The papers by Lohammar (1938), and Ohle (1934, 1940) may be mentioned in particidar. A sample of the old analyses is presented in table 35 and others are presented or referred to in earlier editions of this book. Most of these are waters with several hundred parts per million of total salt, most of it calcium bicarbonate. The deep water of Lac Ritom however, shows the kind of dissolved salt accumulation that may be expected in the waters of a meromictic lake. Some analyses from the Rhine (A-D) and Elbe (E-H) systems are presented in table 36 and some from the Danube system (A-E) and several other rivers are presented in table 37. All are normal calcium bicar- bonate waters. A few analyses for Sweden and Estonia are presented in table 38. There is considerable variation in the con- centration of Swedish waters, those from lowland sedi- mentary rocks being more concentrated than those from upland hard rocks. Although they lack a few major ions and so are not reproduced here, the analyses by Lohammar (1938) of the waters of Sweden contain much useful information, and, as they provide uniform analyses for many waters from various geological en- vironments, they have formed the factual basis for a number of geochemical discussions (Rodhe, 1949; Gorham, 1955). The Koverjarv near Jussi in Estonia is noteworthy for the extreme dilution of its waters. Table 35. — Some analyses, in parts per million, of waters from west Europe [All these data except H are recalculated from Clarke (1924b), after various authors] A B C D E F G H I J HCOr 1 . 202 21. 8 7.5 11.3 82.8 2.3 2.9 91 7.7 1.9 102 42. 2 1 5.7 103 40.5 .79 49 57.9 109 1,658 0.00 351 16.6 1.56 .002 .0037 82.4 20.7 12. 2 1. 2 6.6 4. 4 .60 41. 220 33.6 1. 1 104 SOr 2 . _. 13 Cr 1 .-.._. 15 N0 3 ~' NOr 1 POr 3 Ca+ 2 74 1.6 7.3 2.2 . 18 .24 19. 2 1.8 9.3 2. 2 3.8 3.6 26 .92 6. 1 3.4 2. 2 45.3 2.7 5 1.6 1.9 42. 3 3.5 3.8 .38 1 .5 27. 1 6.7 1.5 2. 525 118 2. 1 3.6 1 8.3 56 14 3.5 3.5 .06 .83 36.2 Mg+ 2 -. - 5.3 Na +1 - 8.9 K +I . 3.8 Fe -- - -- Al - --- -- .25 Mn Sid -- - 24 4 42.3 40.4 23.8 8.6 2.8 10 3.6 1.8 Total dissolved solids. 353 170 180 231 203 147 2,430 538 336 188 ' Computed from oxides on the basis that only Fe20i was present. A. The Seine at Berey, France. Analysis by H. Sainte-Claire Deville, 1848. B. The Loire near Orleans, France. Analysis by Deville, 1848. C. The Garonne at Toulouse, France. Analysis by Deville. 1848. D. The Rhone at Geneva, Switzerland. Analysis by Deville, 1848. E. Lac Leman, Switzerland. Analysis by R. Brandenbourgh cited in Forel (1S84). F. Lac Ritom, above Airolo, Canton Ticino, Switzerland. Surface water. Anal- ysis by F. E. Bourcart, 1906. G. Lac Ritom, lower layer of water, below 13 m depth. Analysis by Bourcart, 1906. H. Tonteich near Reinbeck, Germany. 0.5 m depth, Apr. 25, 1935. Data from Ohle, 1936. I. Kochelsee, Germany. J. Hallstattersee, Upper Austria. Mean of two analyses, summer and winter. Analyses by N. von Lorenz, 1898. G24 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Data for lakes and rivers of the Mediterranean area of Europe are very few. Stankovic (1931) presents analyses lacking sodium and potassium for 10 Aegean lakes. Table 36.- -Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Rhine and the Elbe and their tributaries [These data are recalculated from Clarke (1924b), after various authors] A B C D E F G H HCO3-1 145 11.1 .83 176 13.2 .95 146 19.8 6.5 2.9 56.6 7 ill }n.i 4.8 113 19.4 11.3 5 1 3.3 63 24.5 12.1 1.89 16.6 7 10.5 3.5 / .69 1 1.1 5.6 202.8 19.8 7.2 2 58.4 7.1 8.7 5.4 Via 9 106 SO,- 2 22 C1-' 8.7 NO3-1 2.1 Ca+' 41 7.2 2.3 2.8 55.7 4.8 }» 41.6 6.1 10.1 6.4 1.98 5.7 .7 1.1 1.7 .8 Tr. 6 31 Mg*> 5.4 Na+» 9 K« 4.7 Fe 1.07 Al SiO» 2.9 2.1 10.6 Total dissolved solids 213 254 250 215 19.6 146 322 201 1 Recalculated from FejOa-t-AhOa on the basis that Fe alone was present. A. Lake of Zurich, Switzerland. Analysis by Moldenhauer 1857. B. The Rhine at Basel, Switzerland. Analysis by J. S. F. Fagenstecher, 1837, cited by Roth. C. The Rhine near Mainz, Germany. Analysis by E. Egger, 1887. D. The Rhine at Arnheim, Germany. Analysis by J. W. Gunning, 1854. E. The Saale near its source. Analysis by E. Spaeth, 1889. F. The Saale at Blankenstein, Germany. Analysis by A. Schwager, 1891. G. The Elbe at Celakowitz, above the mouth of the Iser. H. The Elbe at Tetscben, near the Bohemian frontier. So much information exists for the waters of the Soviet Union that it is possible to give only a small sample here. Analyses for a number of rivers, some of them very important ones, are presented in tables 39 and 40. Additional information may be found in Blidin and Aslanov (1952); Durov (1952); Forsch (1936); Fortunatov (1932); Oseroff (1926); Polyakov and Kuznetzov (1940); Valyashko (1939); Vesclovskii, Golokov, and Tarasov (1954); Bochkarev (1959). Occasionally sodium displaces calcium or sulfate displaces carbonate as principal ions. Of the rivers listed, only the Ishim, with its 1,200 ppm of total salts and its high chloride content, seems to show any trace of the evolution displayed by the rivers of the Rio Grande system and other arid parts of the American West, but there must be streams of such high concen- Table 37. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Central Europe [All these data are recalculated from Clarke (1924b) , after various authors] A B C D E F G H HCOs-i 104 10.5 4.9 .23 22.8 9 3.4 2 .23 .50 3.9 9.5 5.5 8.3 1.8 13.1 . 7 3 1.3 .18 2.4 9.8 232 15.4 2.6 .50 58.3 13.5 3.2 2.1 .09 .86 3.5 167 14.7 2.4 2.1 43.9 9.9 2.8 1.6 .33 148 20.7 2.1 124 64 49 32.8 21.6 5 170 SOr 1 16.9 CI-' 4.8 NO3-' Ca+i— 40.4 10.5 1.4 Tr. 52 8.7 28.8 5.4 25.7 3 5.9 4.9 12.1 50.8 Me« 7.9 Na+i 2.8 KM _. .69 Fe 1.77 Al SiOj 5.6 1.8 10.5 11.6 8 Total dissolved solids 161 55.6 332 250 225 342 113 263 1 Computed from Fe20a + AI2O3 on the assumption that Fe alone was present. A. The Naab. Analysis by A. Schwager, 1893. B. The Ilz. Analysis by Schwager, 1893. C. The Danube above the Naab. Analysis by Schwager, 1893. D. The Danube above Vienna (20 km) at Greifenstein. Mean of 23 analyses, by J. F. Wolfbauer, of samples taken at intervals of 16 days throughout the year 1878. E. The Danube at Budapest. Analysis by M. Ballo, 1878. F. The Weser at Rekum, 41 km above its mouth. Mean of2 analyses by F. Seyfert, 1893. G. The Oder near Breslau. Sample taken at high water. Analysis by O. Luedecke, 1907. H. The Vistula at Culm. Analysis by G. Bischof, 1863. Table 38. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Estonia, Sweden, and Norway [Analyses C-E are recalculated from Clarke (1924b, after Hofman-Bang] A B C D E F HCOj-i <1.4 <4 <2 1.2 3.3 19.5 .8 .9 21.3 1.1 1.1 Tr. 50.9 69.6 5.8 .23 12 SOr 1 5 Cl-i 3.5 NO3-1 .0 < .013 <1 <1 .0 Ca« 23.3 19.3 JTr.... .2 2.2 .1 { H } ■•» 1.5 4.3 .06 2.2 1.5 1.27 3.4 49.9 3.8 5.9 3.1 12.3 11 6 Mg+s .0 Na+i 1.5 K+i .8 Fe < .07 .13 Al > .18 1.6 3.4 Total dissolved solids >48.9 28.7 35.2 203 32.3 1 Computed from Fe203+Ah03 on the basis that Fe only was present. A. Koverjarv near Jussi, east Estonia. Riikoja (1940, p. 177-178). B. Vasulajarv near Laane, east Estonia. Riikoja (1940, p. 268). C. The Byske-elf, Sweden, July. Analysis by O. Hofman-Bang, 1905. D. The Ljusnan, Sweden, June. Hofman-Bang, 1905. E. The Fyris, Sweden, October. Hofman-Bang, 1905. F The Glomma at Kykkelsrud power station, Askim, Norway. Dec. 7, 1958. Durum, Heidel, and Tison (1960). Analysis includes F, 0.0 ppm; Ag, 0.000032 ppm; Al, 0.030 ppm; B, 0.0007 ppm; Ba, 0.018 ppm; Co, 0.000 ppm; Cr, 0.0012 ppm; Cu, 0.0014 ppm; Li, 0.014 ppm; Mn, 0.0054 ppm; Mo, 0.000 ppm; Ni, 0.0021 ppm; Pb, 0.0018 ppm; Rb, 0.0017 ppm; Sr, 0.015 ppm; Ti, 0.00097 ppm; V, 0.000 ppm; and Zn, <0.027 ppm. Table 39. — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of river water from the U.S.S.R. [All analyses from Alekin (1953, table 45)] A B C D E F G H I .1 K L M N O P HC03-i._ 122 47.1 14 41.4 9.4 } 13.4 24.4 2.6 8 4.6 2.1 3.2 71.6 3.6 5.2 21 .3 9.5 27.5 4.5 3.8 8 1.2 3.8 80.4 13.3 38.4 27.4 5.8 20.8 268.4 24.5 9.8 63.2 18.3 12.5 195.2 12.9 9.2 55.7 11.8 2.3 231.8 14.1 3.9 64 7.7 8.7 260 112 44 82 18 52.2 246.4 163 171.5 114 17.9 116.3 268 480 210 173 CI. 5 169 108 18 17 37 3 12 210.4 112.3 19.9 80.4 22.3 12.5 218.7 108.4 14.4 84.6 18.7 11.3 250.7 5.6 2.3 61.5 14.2 23 221.4 SOr 1 - 169.6 Cl-i _ 9 Ca* 1 115.6 Mg+' __ 18.2 Na« E>i __ Total dissolved solids >247 >44.9 >111 >48.8 >186 >397 >287 >330 >568 >829 > 1,352 >195 >458 >456 >357 >536 A. Sev. Dvina (d. Zvoz) Aug. 27, 1946. B. Pechora (s. Ust=Tilma) June 19, 1941. C. Velikhaia (s. Piatonovo) June 8, 1946. D. Neva (s. Ivanovskoe) July 9, 1946. E. Volkhov (g. Novgorod) June 29, 1938. F. Iuzhn. Bug (s. Aleksandrovsk) Mar. 30, 1939. G. Dnepr (s. Razumovka) Aug. 27, 1938. H. Desna (g. Chernigov) Aug. 4, 1939. I. Don (s. Aksalskaia) July, 1939. J. Sev. Donets (s. Ust-Belokalitvinskaia) Aug. 31, 1939. K. Kalmius (s. Sartana) Aug. 11, 1939. L. Kuban (kh. Tikovskii) July 20, 1938. M. Volga (g. Volsk) Aug. 21, 1940. N. Oka (Novinki) Aug. 10, 1938. O. Moskva (s. Tatorovo) Average of 10 samples, 1914-26. P. Sura (s. Kozlovka) Sept. 2, 1940. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HIVKKS ANO LAKHS G25 Table 40. — Further analyses, in milligrams per liter, of river water from the U.S.S.R. [All analyses from Alckin (1953, lablc 45)] A B C D E F G I£ I J K HCOj-' 190.3 132 13.5 82.2 21 } 10.3 170.8 44.5 15 52.3 11.6 18.5 272.1 166.9 18 114 25 17 180 7.4 8 33.6 9.3 24.8 265. 4 156.1 14.2 106.2 27.4 11 245.9 345. 5 504.6 105.7 46.7 333.2 216.9 123.4 24.9 SO. 18.6 21.2 378 3,527 1,548 303 379 1,769 170.8 71.fi 38.3 47.5 19.7 34.5 153.1 105.3 35.9 105. 8 1.2 1.2 140.4 SOc' - 78. ci-< 45.4 Ca*> 89. 5 Mg*> 3.2 Na" K*> 11.4 >449 >313 >613 >269 >580 > 1,642 >495 >7,900 >382 >402 >369 L M N O P Q R s T O HCOj"' 140.4 39.5 8.6 59.6 3.2 } 2.9 102.3 36.2 10.8 41.4 3.2 9.4 124.6 145.6 172 38.6 38 132.5 85.6 13 78 10.7 3.2 18 4.8 6.9 79.3 15.3 3.4 24.5 4.7 .1 124 386.7 529 81.5 77.3 13 66.4 21.2 15.2 18 3.8 18.8 73.2 4 2.6 19.3 4 1.5 31.7 SO.-". 2.8 C1-' 1.5 Ca*' 24.3 5.4 .4 8.2 Mg*> 2.1 Na« K*'.. -- >254 >203 >651 >129 >122 >127 >1,212 >143 >105 >47 A. B. C. D. F.. F. G. H. I. J. K. Kama (s. Chistopol) Sept. 6, 1940. Chusovaia (d. Shelygi) Sept. 26, 1940. Belaia (g. Ufa) Sept. 2, 1940. Viatka (g. Kirov) Sept. 18, 1940. Ural (g. Chkalov) Aug. 12, 1940. Emba (up. Diussiuke) Mav 31, 1941. Terek (st. Kargalinskaia) Sept. 26, 1939. Kalaus (s. Petrovskoe) July 25, 1939. Kura (s. Saliania) July 24, 1941. Syr-Daria (Kishl. Kok Bulak) July 14, 1910. Amu-Daria (g. Turt-Kut) July, 1940. L. Piandzh (s. Tokoi) July 15, 1940. M. Zeravshan (uste Fan-Daria) July 15, 1940. N. Nura (s. Romanovskoe) Aug. 2, 1940. O. Ob (g. Novosibirsk) Aug. 21, 1940. P. Biai (g. Bllsk) Oct. 17, 1942. Q. Irtysh (g. Omsk) July 25, 1940. R. Ishim (g. Akmolinsk) July 24, 1940. S. Lena (s. Kiusiup) Sept. 8, 1940. T. Enisel (g. Krasnoiarsk) Sept. 20, 1036. U. Iana (g. Verkoiansk) July 15, 1927. Table 41. — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of miscellaneous lake xualers from the U.S.S.R. (Analyses A-0 are from Alekin (1953, table 53)] A B C D E F G 11 I J K L M N P HCOr 1 59.2 4.9 1.8 15.2 4.2 } « 58.6 4.4 2 15.2 4.4 4.9 40.2 2.5 7.7 7.1 1.9 8.6 48.6 2.8 .8 12.4 2.1 1.73 20.4 1.3 1.5 54.2 1.6 1.5 414.7 16.9 62.9 33.9 55.9 f 77.3 I 21.4 112.8 4 5.2 23.9 5.2 } 11.5 100.6 4.3 4.2 22.1 3.3 3.5 492.7 893 574 25.1 164 694 240 2,115 1,585 114 294 1,475 240 7,620 61, 300 1,000 5,430 35,700 2,640 95,200 137, 800 210 19,200 97,300 400 79, 300 102,500 200 6,500 92, 230 500 44,500 121,600 500 11, 200 82,300 215 SOr 1 . 46.900 142, 500 2,900 19, 900 81,200 3,008 Cl-'+Bi-' 5,338 Ca* 1 346 Me" 730 Na+> _ / 3,174 I 85 K*> Total dissolved >91.4 >89.5 >68 >68.4 >80.5 >683 >163 >138 >2, 840 >5,820 >111,000 >352,000 >281,000 >293, 000 >261,000 > 12, 900 A. Baikal (surface) Aug. 21, 1925 A. G. Frank-Kamenetskii. B. Baikal (1,000 m) Do. C. Ladozbskoe (surface) I. B. Molchanov. D. Teletskoe (surface) S. G. Lepneva. E. Onezhskoe- - Sept. 26,1935 I. B. Molchanov. F. Sevan Aug. 12, 1928 S. I. A. Liatti. G. Chudskoe — Sept. 1,1934 A. A. Sokolov. H. Valdalskoe. Aug. 28,1946 O. K. Sokolov. I. Balkasb Aug. 19, 1941 V. D. Konshin. J. Issyk-Kul -- V. P. Matveev. Table 42. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Crimean salt lakes [AH analyses are from Kurnakov and others (1936)] A B c D E F G HC03-' -- 350 11,790 82,200 1,360 1,350 5,980 45, 420 1.860 1.1156 180 7.400 49, 500 210 1,170 3,300 27,700 1.100 1.0688 1,160 46,900 147,800 1,800 710 3,747 29,170 1,129 1.2529 220 5,390 74, 955 170 4,150 7,560 32,280 480 220 3,850 121, 780 440 3,280 9,465 60,400 270 180 21. 130 29,200 600 720 3,880 20,670 550 1.0617 310 SOr" 74,200 C1-' -. 37,500 Br-' 90 Ca*> 480 Mg+» 6,000 Na+i K+i 47,800 470 Specific gravity. - - 1. 1485 Total dissolved solids > 150, 000 >90, 600 >232,000 > 125, 000 > 200, 000 >77, 000 > 167, 000 A. B. c. D. E. F. Q. Iagi-moinak, Aug. 13, 1931 (p. 87). Ozero Donuziav (p. 98). Ozero Sultan-Eli (p. 98). Ozero Kyrkskoe (p. 142). Ozero Kiiatskoe (p. 142). Ozero Marfovka (p. 166). Ozero Kopty (p. 166). 643862—63 5 K. Sakskoe Aug. 1, 1931 II. S. Kurnakov. L. B. Bogatoe Do. M. Ebelty Aug. 12, 1939 Do. (Kulundiaskaia steppe) N. Bogaz-Gol V. S. Egorov. O. Kuchuk Aug. 29, 1938 E. A. Razumovskata. P. Mean of 10 analyses of stir- Aug. 11-21, Analysts, O. P. Oparina and M. face and bottom water of 1933. T. Golubeva. From Bruje- southem Caspian Sea. wicz (1938). tration in the U.S.S.R. As may be seen from tabic 41, there is 110 shortage of extremely concentrated lakes. Some lakes such as Ebeity on Kulundinskaia Steppe, Kara-Bogaz-Gol, and B. Bogatoe are domi- nated by sodium and chloride. Many other lakes in the Crimea (table 42) and Kazakhstan (table 43) have sodium chloride water of high concentration. Alekin and Brazhnikova (1957) have summarized the chemical composition of the rivers of the U.S.S.R. Their results are presented in table 44. Except for the regions of internal drainage, the U.S.S.R. is char- acterized by waters of a total dissolved solids content of about 100 ppm and the weighted mean for the river water of all its territory is raised only to 123 ppm by the rivers of the Caspian basin and the basins of in- G26 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 43. — Analyses of water f torn Kazakhstan [Analyses A, B, and C have been recalculated from Posokhov (1949)) Milligrams per liter Parts per million A B C D E F G H HC0 3 -' - - - 1,272 791 140, 475 39, 751 10, 963 46, 640 1,357 396 5,722 40, 402 2, 502 3,258 21, 084 164 384 3,633 62, 007 2,823 3,560 32, 628 297 900 92, 700 30, 600 400 3,000 46, 300 2, 100 10, 000 700 300 400 7,300 2, 100 9, 820 15, 210 540 1, 510 11, 100 930 70 240 60 20 480 Tr. 950 SOr 2 .- .-- -- 180 CI- 1 320 Ca+ 2 - 170 Mg+ 2 _. -- 50 Na +1 . - 240 K +1 50 Total dissolved solids. >241,000 >73, 500 > 105, 000 > 174, 000 >20, 800 >40, 300 > 1,800 > 1,960 Note.— Posokhov has lumped his data for the hypothetical combinations of Ca, Mg, HCO3, and CO3. The data for these columns have been recalculated on the basis that only CaCCh is involved. A. TJshtagan Lake, central Kazakhstan. Aug. 23, 1945. B. Ekibastuz Lake, central Kazakhstan. June 16, 1948. C. Lake Tuz, central Kazakhstan. June 16, 1948. Table 44. — Average ionic composition, in parts per million, of river water in the territory of the U.S-8.R. (These data are from Alekin and Brazhnikova (1957); A B C D E F O H I HCO3- 1 56.3 14.8 5 17.2 3.8 | 4.4 50.2 9.2 5.4 14.1 3 5.9 59.4 17.5 17.7 16.7 4.8 13.8 81.8 7 4 19.4 5 3 138.5 41.5 16.5 43.4 8.6 18.5 30.9 5.8 2.5 7.8 2 3.4 134.2 62. 1 18.9 50.2 9.9 19.5 202 164.8 73.6 94.1 17.9 63.2 62.2 SOr 1 18.4 Cl-> 9.9 Ca+» 18.9 Mg+> 4.3 Na +1 9.3 K+i Total dis- solved solids >102 >88 >130 >120 >267 >52.4 >295 >616 >123 A. Barents and White Sea drainages. B. Kara Sea drainage. C. Laptev, eastern Siberian and Chukot Sea drainage. D. Baltic Sea drainage. E. Black Sea and Sea of Azov drainage. F. Bering, Okhotsk, Japan Sea drainages. G. Caspian Sea drainage. H. Aral Sea drainage. I. Entire territory of the U.S.S.R. ternal drainage. The dominant ions are calcium and bicarbonate, as they are for most of the world. A very small sample of the available data for Japanese waters is presented in tables 45, 46 and 47. Additional information may be found in papers by Hanya (1953a, 1953b), Hanya and Sugawara (1950), Iwasaki and Nitta (1954a, 1954b), Iwasaki, Nitta, and Tarutani (1953), Kimura and others (1950), J. Kobayashi (1948, 1951b, 1953, 1957), S. Kobayashi (1954), Miyada (1939), Noguchi (1950), Sugawara and Hanya (1948), Sugihara (1951), Takakura (1955), Yamagata (1954), Yamamoto (1952), and Yoshino (1950). A particularly valuable summary may be found in J. Kobayashi (1960). In Japan, volcanic influence on water chemistry is strong, as indicated by the rather high silica levels in the water. In certain localities the water is very acid. Katanuma-ko, a small crater lake, is among the more acid lake waters of the world, having a pH of 1.7 (Hutchinson, 1957). None of the waters for which reasonably complete analyses arc D. Lake Sullatnoe 1, Kustanay region. Dec. 11, 1937. This analysis and analysis E-H are recalculated from Polyakov and Kuznetsov (1940). E. Lake near suburb Krasni Kordon, Kustanay region. Aug. 11, 1937. F. Lake Sulfatnoe 2, Kustanay region. June 11, 1939. G. Lake Pofarnoe, Kustanay region. Aug. 19, 1937. H. Lake Uchitolskoe, Kustanay region. Aug. 19, 1937. available is this acid. But the River Su is rather high in acidity; its sulfuric and hydrochloric acid content comes partly from acid-mine wastes and partly from volcanic gases. The miscellaneous analyses given in table 47 are of interest because of the data they provide for the rarer alkali metals and for zinc and copper. Table 45. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Akita Prefecture, Japan [Data recalculated from Kobayashi (1951a)] A B C D E F G H HOO3-1 20.7 15.4 7.9 .27 .01 6.4 1.6 7.8 .76 .03 .04 34.9 12.8 15.4 8.7 .62 .00 17.8 4.3 8.1 1.03 .08 .04 27.4 21.8 8 10.1 .13 .00 6.1 2 2 7^4 7.2 .03 .03 15.9 16.1 18.4 9.9 .40 .03 7.5 2.3 7.7 .90 .04 .14 20 0.0 41.2 52.9 .18 .03 9.4 5.3 8.1 1.84 .04 2.07 32.1 16.7 15.4 12.9 .49 .01 7 2 .9 .84 .04 .12 17.5 15.3 12.2 11.5 .35 .01 6.2 1.9 7.8 8.1 .05 .22 14.7 13.1 SOr 1 -- - 11.2 C1-' 11.5 NO3- 1 .27 POr 3 - .01 Ca +1 5 Mg" 2.2 Na +1 9.3 K« 1.02 NHi'i . . .04 Fe --. .11 Si0 2 16.4 Total dissolved 95.8 96.3 78.9 83.4 153 73.9 78.3 70.2 \ River Oyu at Furukawa bridge, Kemanai-cho. Mean of 11 analyses, 1942-43. B River Kbsaka at Setaishi bridge, Kemai-cho. Mean of 11 analyses, 1942-43. C. River Ani at Takamaga bridge, Shimoonomura. Mean of 11 analyses, 1942-43. D. River Yoneshiro at Tomine bridge, Tomine-mura. Mean of 11 analyses, 1942-43 E. River Takamatsu at Tohira. Mean of 11 analyses, 1942-13. F River Minase at Sennen lock-gate. Mean of 10 analyses, 1942-43. G River Omono above River Iwami confluence. Mean of 11 analyses, 1942-43. H River Koyoshi at Nagase bridge, Nishitaskizawa-mura. Mean of 12 analyses, 1942-43. A few analyses for the humid parts of southeast Asia are given in table 48 and some partial analyses for Sunda lakes are given by Ruttner (1930). The analyses of J. Kobayashi (1959) for the Mae Khong are particularly instructive because analyses for the lower reaches of large rivers in the humid tropics are very scarce. The rivers of Thailand, at least, are not as dilute as such rivers are often supposed to be. There are many data in J. Kobayashi (1959) which are not included here, and they show the strong influence of local geology on the chemistry of Thailand rivers. The rivers of the CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G27 Table 40. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Kanto districts, Japan (These data have been recalculated from Kobayashi (1955)) A B c D E F H I J K IICOj -1 20.2 44. 'J 8.2 .31 .01 15.7 4.3 0.6 3.54 1.32 .04 35.4 28.7 14.2 4.7 1.28 .01 9.2 2.3 6.3 .09 1.20 .13 26.3 12.8 8.4 2.2 .26 .00 4.9 1.1 3.3 .02 .74 .03 11.7 0.0 280 134.5 .15 1.84 33.4 2.5 13.4 .23 6.31 4.71 61.5 0.1 78.9 18.2 5.75 .02 15.3 3.8 8.5 .09 3.03 .88 36.4 24.0 10.7 5.5 .27 .01 7 1.7 6.6 .13 1.12 .01 18 48.9 29.9 14.6 .89 .01 16.5 2.1 16.1 .10 1.67 .05 37.5 69.1 5.3 2.8 1.51 .05 21.4 1.7 7 .05 1.09 .05 10.5 42.3 6.7 2.9 .80 .02 10.4 1.6 5.5 .13 1.85 .08 50.8 21 31.3 8.8 1.68 .01 11.9 2.9 6.4 .07 1.47 .16 27.8 28.1 so<-' - - - 35.2 CM - - 5. 1 2.08 .01 fa* 1 17 Mgt! 2.8 Na*' --- 6 \JH,H - .05 K+i 1.70 Fe - .06 22.4 141 94.4 45.5 539 169 75 168 121 123 114 120 L M N O P Q R S T U V W nror 1 - 33.3 15.6 5 Ml .01 10.4 1.7 J. 6 .12 1.57 .08 24.1 36.9 13 2.9 .13 .07 9.9 2 ".75 .04 1.51 .01 29.9 37.4 19.1 7.7 .93 .01 12.9 2.9 7.5 .05 1.54 .23 21.1 62 18.2 2.1 .97 .02 20.9 1.9 4.4 .01 .81 .02 11 56 21.1 6.1 1.64 .07 16.9 3.9 6.9 .09 1.38 .36 16.1 41.5 7.1 .6 .53 .02 12.9 1.1 3 .03 .61 .00 13.7 57.9 10.4 2.5 1.82 .01 17.8 1.9 4. 1 .04 1 .00 14.1 45 11.9 5.8 4.70 .00 14.4 3.1 5.4 .03 1.04 .04 20.4 46.4 1.6 .8 .05 .01 8.2 3.4 3.3 .03 1.18 .05 9.3 55.7 8.9 1.9 1.42 .07 13.9 4.6 2.3 .03 1.05 .13 33.5 49.4 10.4 1.9 1.37 .07 11.7 3 5.4 .13 1.11 .12 29.7 48 so,- - 10.4 Cl-i 1.9 XOj-' 1.37 1 Oi" J - .07 Ca*' 11.9 Mg+i 3.2 Na*-' -- - - 5.1 NHj" .13 K+i - - 1.01 Fe --- .16 SiOj — 30.9 100 97.1 111 122 131 81.1 112 112 74.3 124 114 114 A. River Naka at Kuroiso-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. B. River Naka at Akutsu-mura. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. C. River Tone at Numata-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1943-44 D. River Su at Naganohara-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. E. River Agatsuma at Shibukwa-machi. Mean of 8 anaylses, 1943-44. F. Lake Haruna at Murota-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. G. River Usui at Toyooka-Mura. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. II. River Kanna at Onishi-machi. Mean of 2 analyses, 1944. I River Kasu at Kasukawa-mura. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. J. River Tone, at Kawamata-mura. Mean of 12 analyses, 1943-14 and 1953-54. K. River Watarase at Ashikaga-shi. Mean of 8 analyses, 1943^4. L. Lake Chujenji at Nikko-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. Korat Plateau, in particular, show high concentrations of sodium and chloride due to the influence of salt oozing from sandstone formations. These rivers show a marked seasonal cycle of concentration. Parts of the Thailand drainage are not iii the humid tropics, and the rest are in the region of monsoon climate. Although these rivers, therefore, cannot be taken as representative of rivers such as the Amazon and Congo which drain mostly tropical rain forests, they are probably repre- sentative of most of the tropical rivers of Asia. The single analysis for the Ganges in table 49 sug- gests a water not very different from that of the Mae Khong, and supports the belief that many tropical rivers may actually contain total dissolved solids closer to 200 ppm than the 100 ppni usually assumed. The other analyses in table 49 are all for more or less con- centrated waters. The waters of Afghanistan in particular are in an advanced state of evolution. Auden, Gupta, Roy, and Hussain (1942) have provided a new though incomplete analysis of the water of Sambhar Lake. Some data for Iran and Turkey are presented in table 50. Almost all the lakes of Iran are highly evolved sodium chloride ones. The dominance of sodium and chloride is so strong, even for waters with M. River Daiya at Nikko-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1943-44. N. River Tone at Sawara-shi. Mean of 12 analyses, 1943-44 and 1953-54. O. River Ara at Nagatoro. Mean of 6 analyses, 1942-43. P. River Ara at Akabane-machi. Mean of 7 analyses, 1942-43. Q. River Tama at Mitake. Mean of 6 analyses, 1942-43. R. River Tama at Haijima-mura. Mean of 6 analyses, 1942-43. S. River Tama at Noborito. Mean of 6 analyses, 1942-43. T. Lake Yamanaka at Minamitsuru-gun. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. U. River Katsura at Otsuki-machi. April 16, 1943. V. Lake Sagami at Yose-machi. Mean of 11 analyses, 1953-54. W. River Sagami at Sagamihara-machi. Mean of 6 analyses, 1953-54. a total dissolved solids content of about 5,000 ppm, that one suspects the presence of halite beds in the vicinity. The Karaj River at Tehran is an ordinary calcium bicarbonate stream, showing that all waters in Iran are not of such strong desert types. It is probable that Kerman-Kanat is only one of many waters intermediate between the highly concentrated sodium chloride lakes and the Karaj River. The best data for the Dead Sea and the waters flowing into it are presented in table 51. This system has long attracted the attention of travelers, and a number of older analyses may be found in the early editions of this book. Chloride and sodium are high even in the water of Merom. In the saltier water of the Dead Sea sodium is less important and magnesium is the dominant cation. Notice the variations in con- tent of the Dead Sea with depth. The high bromine content has long invited speculation. It appears to be derived from fossil residual brines of Tertiary age (Ben tor, 1961). NEW ZEALAND The waters of New Zealand are very incompletely known. The analyses given in table 52 are all from hydrothermal districts, and can hardly be typical of G28 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 47. — Miscellaneous analyses, in parts per million, of water from Japan 'Analyses A-N are from Yamagata (1951b); analyses O-V are from Sugihara (1952); analyses O-R appear to be for irrigation water. All the analyses are from the area infected with schistosomiasis in Hiroshima Prefecture] A B c D E F O H I J K HC0 3 -1 22.2 4.9 7.6 25.6 31.6 9 7.8 46.8 14.4 4.8 37.8 18.5 5.5 31 13.5 9.2 22.4 22.4 11.6 26.1 17.9 9.9 24.2 3.3 5.7 30.5 4.1 6.7 31 SOr 1 6 2 C1-' 8.9 6 3 NOj-' — - POr' Ca+" 4.6 2.7 4.29 1.29 7.9 2.8 4.47 1.23 8.3 4 6.04 2.66 13.2 3.2 3.05 3.11 16 1.1 3.62 2.76 9.6 4.9 1.86 .47 8.9 4.5 6.87 .85 10.3 3.8 6.42 1.37 7.7 2.5 3.33 .54 8.7 3.1 3.17 .56 9 9 Mg+» _- Na+' -- K« 50 Fe Mn Zn _ Cu _ SiOj-- Li+' . .01)1 .002 .00005 .001 .001 .00005 .001 .001 .0002 .002 .002 .0001 .005 .002 .0002 .0002 .0004 .0002 .0007 .0005 .0008 .0007 .0005 .0003 .0004 .002 Rb« Cs+> >47.6 >50.9 >69.4 >88.6 >85.3 >70.5 >77.5 >75.8 >47.3 >56.8 >60. 1 L M N P Q R s T U V HCOr 1 34.4 4.3 7.5 22 9.1 8.2 15.1 1.4 7.9 92 12.3 26.5 .04 .05 21 9.9 13.2 2.2 1.1 .02 .041 .012 8.9 106.4 31.3 35.4 .46 .02 38.2 8.3 15.7 1.6 3.3 .48 .045 .008 17 93.6 14.7 26.9 1.62 .02 22.9 5.5 14.6 1.7 9 112.4 21 25.3 2.14 .00 25.3 9.7 14.1 2.1 7.2 .06 .029 .010 12.8 89.8 6.7 21.2 2.90 .2 18.7 7.3 13.7 1.3 3.3 .20 .035 .007 15 71.8 9.5 13.7 .85 .04 9.3 7.8 11.4 1.7 .4 .02 .010 .004 13.4 61 4.7 11 .00 .01 6.9 2.1 8.8 .3 .05 85 6 sor 2 CI-' NOr' - po ( -» ... .04 Ca +J 10.8 1.6 2.95 .64 7.5 3.2 4.84 .70 4 2.1 3.58 .62 2 5 Mg*» 1 9 Na +I 13 K+' 5 Fe - 08 Mn - - Zn .056 .017 10.8 Cu.. . SiOj 20.1 20.2 Li« .0005 .001 .001 .002 .0004 .0006 Rb+> Cs + ' . >62.2 >55.5 >34.7 187 258 2111 232 180 140 115 136 A. Ota River at Tama-mura, Nov. 16, 1949. B. Chigusa River at Kami-gori. Nov. 18, 1949. C. Yodo River at Hira-kata. Nov. 19, 1949. D. Tenryu River at Nakano-machi. Nov 20, 1949. E. Oi River at Nishi-kawa. Nov 20, 1949. F. Naka River at Mito-shi. Mar. 19, 1950. G. Kitakami River at Kage-yama. Mar. 18, 1950. H. Abukuma River at Kaino-ki. Mar. 26, 1950. I. Kumanq River at Shingu. Apr. 9, 1950. J. Kuzuryu River at Morita. Apr. 12, 1950. K. Syo River at Ecchu-daimon. Apr. 13, 1950. L. M. N. O. P. Q. R. S. T. U. V. JintsQ River at Toyama-sbi. Apr. 13, 1950. Shinano River at Naga-oka-shi. Apr. 14, 1950. Aka River at Honjo. Apr. 14, 1950. Miyuki-mura, between Ashlda and Takaya Rivers. Kanbe-cho, Katayama-buraku. Miyuki-mura, between the Ashida River and the Fukuyama-Fuchu highway. Miyuki-mura, between the Eamo River and the Fukuyama-Fuchu highway. Takaya River below the junction with the Kamo River, Miyuki-mura. Asbida River at Ubeyama-mura. Ashida River at Ekiya-cho. Ashida River at Fuchu-cho. Table 48. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from southeast Asia [Analyses A-F are from Kobayashi (1959); analyses G-H are from unpublished data of the Institut Pasteur de Saigon] A B c D E F G H HCOj-i 116.9 17.1 6.9 .02 115.6 14.7 6.2 .04 100.3 12.2 6.6 .04 42.4 2 61.6 .10 15.8 .2 1.1 .02 82.6 3.3 12.7 .08 12.2 Nil Tt. Tr. Nil 1.1 3.6 .5 .9 Nil Tr. .3 .8 5.1 so ( - a CI-' Tr NOa-i._ NO2-1.--. .6 Nil POr 3 .01 32.1 5.9 8.4 1.7 .04 .00 .00 31.1 5.7 7.7 1.6 .04 .00 .00 26.8 4.9 7.5 1.4 .04 .00 .00 10.9 2.3 40 2.8 .06 .11 .00 1.9 .7 2.4 1.3 .04 .02 .01 19.8 3.7 10.7 2.5 .06 .04 Ca+J Mg+» Na« K« NH,« Fe Al SiOj 14.4 15 13.8 10.8 15.9 16 Total dissolved 204 198 174 173 39.4 152 24.5 43.7 A. Mac Khong at Cbiengsan. Mean of 12 analyses. B. Mae Khong at Nongkai. Mean of 12 analyses. C. Mae Khong at Mukdaham. Mean of 12 analyses. D. Mun River at Ubolragatani. .Mean of 12 analyses. E. Sai Buri River at Naratliiwat. Mean of 12 analyses. F. Mean of 30 Thailand stations, each analyzed 10-J2 times. Q. Lac des Soupirs a Dalat, Vietnam, sample taken in August, during the rainy season. H. Grand Lao a Dalat, Vietnam, sample taken In August, during the rainy season. the country. Silica and sodium chloride concentra- tions in these waters are high. They are, in general, reminiscent of waters in Japan. This is not surprising, as both countries are in the temperate zone, surrounded by the sea, and in areas of crustal instability. AUSTRALIA The composition of Australian waters (tables 53, 54, 55, 56, and 57) is extremely varied. In the humid temperate parts of the country, such as Tasmania and the highlands of Victoria, the waters are very dilute, a number of waters containing about 10 ppm of total dissolved solids, excluding silica. The most dilute waters are of the sodium and calcium bicarbo- nate types. In the less dilute waters the total dissolved material is about 100 ppm and chloride approaches or exceeds bicarbonate in importance. Most of the available analyses for the surface waters of Australia are from the humid regions of high- population density where surface water is plentiful CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G29 Table 49. — Analyses of water from India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan [Analyses C-E In milligrams per liter; all otjier analyses In parts per million] A B c D E F a H HCOr 1 292 80.7 563 5.3 37. 7 92 306 102 1 10. 6 1.2 18. 1 7.7 11.6 120 18, 600 188, 300 80 12, 290 191, 500 120 14, 270 156, 930 110 17.3 8.9 230 68.6 43 137 S0 4 - 2 26. 4 ci- 31. 3 No 3 -' Ca+ 2 420 3, 500 123, 920 Trace <70 580 2,700 124, 260 Trace Trace 850 5,980 96, 400 Trace <20 39. 6 1. 1 7.8 46.6 18. 8 58 27 Mg+" Na +1 13 26. 9 K+> Fe Total dissolved solids >1380 >152 >335, 000 >331, 000 > 275, 000 >185 >465 >262 Salt Lake, Calcutta. Analysis from Bose (1940, p. 7). Raw Ganges water, Calcutta, during a time when marine salt was absent. Bose (1940, p. 8). Maimana Late, Afghanistan. This and the following two analyses are from a certified copy, provided by Afghanistan Geol. Survey report on the Salt Sources of Afghanistan prepared by E. R. Gee of the Qeol. Survey of India in 1940, D. Brine from Namaksar (salt Held), Herat, Afghanistan. E. Brine from natural pools, Tashkurghan, Afghanistan. F. Chenab at Kanki, Pakistan, Dec. 1959. This and the following 2 analyses are from unpublished data provided by the Geol. Survey of Pakistan. G. Ravi at Chicha Watni, Pakistan, Mar. 1959. H. Indus at Mithankof Chachran, Mar. 1959. Table 50. — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of water from Iran and Turkey [ Data for waters from Iran, analyses A-M are from Lofller (1956); analyses N-0 are from unpublished data of the Tehran Water Board. Analysis P is from Tulus (1944, p. 61)] A B C D E F G II HCOr' 98 301 3,895 102 3,594 31, 540 186 1,895 18, 328 156 4,218 36,950 270 128 2, 261 282 145 2,174 282 130 2,101 300 SOr ! --- 6,800 CI-' 69.500 NOr'.... NOr' Br Ca»= 61 148 2,316 77 1.130 1,290 18, 370 370 620 775 10, 270 230 1,274 1,476 20, 550 460 137 114 1,220 38 143 97 1 ca. / 1, 200 147 88 / 1,250 1 38 150 Mfi 3,710 Na*i 39, 520 K*i _ 786 Fe Mn S1O2 1.00451 (17° C) 1.04098 (17° C) 1.0029 (17° C) 1. 0027 (17° C) 1.0026 (17° C) >6,900 >56. 400 >32. 300 >65, 100 >4, 170 >4,040 >4,040 > 121, 000 I J K L M N O P HCOr' 228 8, 320 180, 200 162 136 56 420 15, 070 180, 500 600 16, 264 206, 800 1,695 1,200 306 342 162 32 12.5 6 .012 109 11 4.S .04 .003 4,946 so 4 -» 2,368 Cl-i. 5,789 N03-L— NOr 1 Br 3,400 609 8,175 / 103,620 I 2, 603 3,900 1,392 8,834 122, 100 5,086 Ca« 580 4,383 109, 400 951 65 23 } ca. 46 11 25 730 29 56 9.5 32 2.5 36 Mg»> 165 Na+" 7,707 K>i 435 Fe .0 .0 16 .0 .0 10 Mn SiOi 70 1. 1982 (17° C) 1.0006 (17° C) 1. 20793 (18° C) 1.211 (15° C) 1.00138 (18° C) 1.0123 >304, 000 >488 >314 nnn >367, 000 >2, 640 294 169 22. 000 A. Niris Lake at Khan-e-Kat. July 11, 1949. B. Nargis Lake opposite the mouth of the Gomun. July 23, 1949. C. Nargis Lake at the mouth of the Gomun. July 23, 1949. D. Nargis Lake west of the mouth of the Gomun. July 23, 1949 E. Niris Inflow at Khan-e-Kat. July 11, 1949. F. Nargis inflow just above the mouth. July 23, 1949. G. Spring Lake, Gomun. July 22, 1949. H. Maharlu Lake at Dubaneh. July 16, 1949. I. Maharlu Lake at Naharlu. July 15, 1949. J. Kerman-Kanat north of Kerman. Apr. 20, 1950. K. Urmia Lake at Bender Danalu. Oct. 10, 1949. L. Urmia Lake, southwest coast by the salt gardens. Aug. 1949. M. Kurusch-Gol. Oct. 14, 1949. N. Kara] River at Tehran, maximum. O. Karaj River at Tehran, minimum. P. Lake Van, Turkey. and dilute enough to be of economic importance. Much of the continent must be characterized by water more or less like that which gradually evaporated from the Lake Eyre basin during 1950 and 1951 (table 57, analyses K-N). The high sodium chloride content of waters of interior Australia has been interpreted to mean that meteoric salt is a very important source of the dissolved material. It could be as easily explained by the precipitation of less soluble salts in closed basins, or, for Lake Eyre, by the solution of sodium chloride that had been precipitated in the drainage basin during the many years when rainfall was insufficient to permit G30 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 51. — Analyses of waters from the Dead Sea system [Analyses A, B, O and II in parts per million are from Irwin (1923, p. 430-433). The others in milligrams per liter are from Bentor (1961, p. 241)] A. B. C. D. E. A B c D E F o n I HCO:,- 1 195 32 55 42 19 } 44 237. 90 174. 49 473. 50 4.338 80.00 71.42 / 253. 40 \ 14. 85 248 900 180, 800 4, 100 13, 000 34, 500 33, 500 6,300 60 Trace 500 166, 300 4,900 3,700 41, 300 25, 000 4,000 Trace 600 175, 000 7,000 17, 300 41, 400 14, 300 4,400 240 so 4 -> 39 230 39 230 34. 5 283.0 2.35 49.0 131 7 540 CI" 1 Br-' 208, 020 5 920 Ca+ 2 56 26 128 56 26 128 15 800 Mg+ 2 Na +1 K+i 41, 960 34, 940 7 560 Rb 60 Si0 2 17 13 Trace Trace Total dissolved solids 496 492 506. 85 387 1, 309. 898 273, 408 246, 000 260, 000 315 040 Waters of Merom. Inlet to Galilee. Lake Tiberias. Yarmuq River near junction with Jordan River. Jordan River at Jericho. F. Dead Sea (surface water). G. Dead Sea 5 miles east of Ras Fesch Ka, 120 m depth. H. Dead Sea 5 miles east of Ras Fesch Ka, 300 m depth. I. Dead Sea (average). Table 52. — Analyses, in parts per million, of some lake waters from New Zealand [All analyses are recalculated from Phillips (1925, p. 382). Similar data may be found in Phillips and Grigg (1922)] A B C D E F G H HCOr 1 - 20.9 10.7 37.3 Nil 2.9 1.2 45.9 2.4 15.6 14.1 12.8 28.4 Nil 4.3 2 30.8 2.4 2.6 15.3 Nil 40.8 Nil 4.6 1.2 40.5 3.6 20.3 '40.2 10.8 8.9 Nil 8.1 3.5 22.1 1.2 7 61.3 8.7 8.9 Nil 2.6 1.7 16.1 3.6 6.1 16.6 3.7 12.4 Nil 2.6 1.9 18 1.6 8.8 126.9 77.7 628.3 Nil 22.8 8.6 522.2 4 81.4 1 73 4 so,- 2 2.1 CM 10 6 NOV' Nil Ca+» 12 2 Mg+i_. 3 3 Na+i 20 3 AljOi 2 SiOi 22 7 Total dissolved solids. 137 97.4 126 102 109 65.6 1,470 147 1 Includes carbonate. A. Lake Rotorua. B. Lake Rotoiti. C. Lake Rotoma. D. Lake Okareka. E. Tikitapu (Blue Lake). F. Rotokakabl (Green Lake). G. Lake Rotomahana. H. Lake Rotoaira. Table 53. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Northeastern Highland, Victoria [From Anderson (1941, 1945)] A B C D E F G HCOM - 7.8 .2 .9 2.2 1.4 .6 1.5 .6 3.6 .4 1.2 .8 .7 .2 .9 1.1 9.1 .6 .8 Nil 1.4 .7 2 .6 4.90 .29 .93 .44 .95 .42 1.05 .77 43.6 2.5 2.8 Nil 4.3 4.9 } 5.2 21.2 1.7 2.9 Nil 2.2 1.5 3.2 SO,-' CM... NOj-i- Ca«._. Mg+2 .57 Na+i K+i_... .92 Total dissolved solids. >15.2 >8.9 >15.2 >9.8 >63.3 >32.7 >10.7 A. Spring Stream, Mt. Hotham (6,000 ft). B. Crystal Brook, ButTalo Plateau (4,900 it). C. Upper Delatite River, Mt. Butler. D. Upper Kiewa River, Bogong High Plains. E. Stream near Bright. F. Rose River near Doudangadale. G. Rubicon River near Thornton. Table 54. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from saline streams in western Victoria [From Anderson (1941). Analyses F-G represent waters flowing into Lake Coranga- mite during the first rains after drought] A B C D E F G HCOr' 278 67 738 .2 54 115 325 18 429 17 497 Nil 126 71 213 31 490 134 1.390 Nil 180 116 } 726 37 6 386 .1 22 38 / 167 1 6 31.5 18.8 202.6 8.4 144 112.3 3.1 72.2 51.9 590.3 7.5 32.3 73.8 251.8 25 1 160. 8 SO," 2 208.2 CM 1,872 NO1-1 Nil Ca+> 58.2 Mg+2 205.8 Na+i 907.2 K+i..__ 49.2 Total dissolved >1.600 >1.400 >3. 040 >662 >521 >1, 110 >3,460 1 Includes 19.1 COr 2 . A. Little River near Township. B. Merri River near Warrnambool. C. McKinnons Creek near Hamilton. D. Deans Hill Creek near Coleraine. E. Helena River catchment at Mundaring Reservoir, West Australia. 6 samples, 1909-15. F. Woady Yallock River. G. Gnarkeet Creek. Mean of Table 55. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Tasmania [From unpublished analyses provided by the Hydro-Electric Commission, Hobart, Tasmania] A B C D E F HCOr 1 8 Nil 4.5 Nil 3.4 1.2 3.8 .6 .43 7 Nil 4 Nil 3.2 1 3.6 .4 .35 3.6 Nil 2.5 Nil 1.6 .5 2 2 .2 8.1 4.7 5 Nil 3 1.7 3 .11 .55 5.4 4.8 5.5 Nil 3.2 1.6 2.7 .11 .55 8.1 SOr ! .__ 5 CM 7 NO3-1 Nil Ca+» 5 Mg+2 1.7 Na+i K+i Fe .38 Al .84 Mn. .. .01 .01 .01 SiOj... 3 3.2 3.8 Total disolved solids >21.9 >19.6 >10.6 29.2 27 35.9 Mean of 2 analyses of Arthur Lakes water by the Government Analyst's Branch, Sept. and Oct. 1956. Palmer River near Great Lake. Analyzed by the Government Analyst's Branch, Sept. 1956. Great Lake, Analyzed by the Government Analyst's Branch, Oct. 1956. Derwent River at Intake. Derwent River near Derwent Bridge. Creek. Sec. 18. D, E, and F analyzed Nov. 1935 by Avery and Anderson, consulting engineers. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G31 Table 56. — Some analyses, in parts per million, of reservoir ivaters from South Aitslralia [Unpublished analyses iy the South Australian Engineering an Adelaide] 1 Water Supply Dept., A B C D E F G H i 101 24 117 20 18 70 .21 12 108 31 194 24 23 109 .19 8 268 86 275 57 41 179 .1 4 13S 36 220 30 32 119 .14 11 234 41 75 41 38 47 .2 3 172 65 254 40 30 158 .13 7 120 20 222 34 20 123 .34 7 208 so.- J 143 Cl-i 1.016 Ca*> ... 59 M 14.9 K+i 43.3 1.0497 1.0785 1. 1667 Total dissolved >37. 1 >98.4 >87 282 >45.6 >20.7 >79.3 >194 >244 >82.2 <39,900 >73, 500 >116,000 >243, 000 >206 >143 A. Murray River at Tocurmval. Anderson (1945). B. Murray River above Mildura. Anderson (1945). C. Murray River at Merbein, Apr. 1928. Anderson (1945). D. Murray River at an unspecified place in South Australia. Unpublished analy- sis by South Australian Engineering and Water Supply Dept. E. Yarra River at Warrandyte. Mean of 2 analyses. Anderson (1945). F. O'Shannassy River aqueduct. Anderson (1945). G. Latrobe River above Rosedale. Anderson (1945). H. Canning River, Western Australia, Oct. 1923. Anderson (1945). I. Inlet to Mount Eliza Reservoir near Perth. Mean of 8 analyses. Unpublished data provided bv the Government Chemical Laboratories, Perth. J. Lateral 13, Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, New South Wales. This is essen- tially Murrumbidgee River water. Mean of 9 analyses, 1945-46. Cassidy, 1949, p. 2. B<0.1. K. Center Madigan Gulf, Lake Eyre, Oct. 26, 1950. Analysis by T. W. Dalwood. This and the other Lake Eyre analyses are from Bonython, 1955. L. Level Post Bav, Lake Eyre, Feb. 11, 1951. Analysis by S. M. Shepard. M. Level Post Bay, Lake Evre, May 24, 1951. Analvsis by T. R. Frost. Br-i <0.01. N. December Water Station, Lake Eyre, Dec. 13, 1951. Analysis by S. M. Shepard O. Burnett River, Cassidy (1944, sample 576). P. Narau Beak, Cape York Peninsula, Queensland. Mar. 16, 1949. Unpublished analysis by the Irrigation and W'ater Supply Comm., Brisbane. G32 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY *c3> J OS CO is bo*-*. &s 1? 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I _H '-— '£ ] CD I— "ON i lOJiOH ■* IfOOO '!''*! i eo i-i i co r- i i N © N A <4 I ©CO t 1 t~ ■* I 1 t I 1 iMftO < lOOiON < ■ NCO ' it-< ico (4 © N A •a ! « i o ! vs ■ « [ TJ ! O w DC 9 -m a o3 SI as? 1 p -l|SSfiM S J. * i .Si? 03 >,a 9 §5 3 © © >V 3 © _ ■ "MM ,™ CO 03 ? 3 — as- I 3q. S £•3 §3 22 USA BEhEh M4S2dcH'd'pJaifr't)>'^ c3 a a o 3.Q 3 3 •3-u •3 s ti. 9* a •o t, ca t a*? cd o^ 411 1 8 oj'TJ a*§9 o a co *»» „ r CO S ='S»s , » M32 a> ?|-3S?o?'H-95'J Z3 T +^^ © MC0 <07Z S 03 fl O^ « "3 "eaS 3 "- ^noQwfaOMi-ii-; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G33 Table 59.- — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of water from East African lakes [All analyses except D are from Beadle (1932, p. 207). Except for the silicate and phosphate, all the analyses were carried out by the Government Chemist, London. Analysis D is from Beauchamp (1954, p. 27)] A B C D E F Q H HCOr"- 180 17 10 Nil .4 16 7 41 19 } « 20 1. 00024 336 40 36 Trace .96 22 2 126 15 36 15.8 1.00044 1,304 56 429 Trace 1.23 5 4 770 23 3 4.2 1.00190 67.6 320 3,400 46 1,300 35, 300 204 3,450 12, 300 253 1,375 Trace 243 SOr».. 4 ci-> 11 N03- 1 -. - POi"' .5 57 24 .27 13 36 2,114 118 Trace 1.29 26 Trace 14, 360 304 Trace Ca +I -- 10 Nil 5, 550 256 6 16 Mg+»._ 7 LI*' . __ Na* 1 . 22 K>' . 11 Fe Al . _- SiOi 1. 00530 1. 03910 1.01383 316 630 2,600 >7,030 > 53, 600 > 19, 800 >314 1 Includes carbonate. A. Lake Naivasha. B. Lake Baringo. C. Lake Rudolf. D. Lake Rudolf, Jan. 17, 1953. E. Crater Lake A. F. Lake Hannlngton. G. Lake Nakuru. H. Shire River (outlet of Lake Nyasa) at Nchalo, Nyasaland, Nov. 1953. The swamps of East Africa are very effective in removing dissolved material from the waters flowing through them. Compare, for example, analyses B and C of table 58. Sim6n Visser (oral communication, 1960) concludes, from the amount of pH change, that part of the removal is by ion exchange and part by adsorption. The potassium content of some Uganda waters seems very high. The analyst was aware of this anomaly and checked his method carefully for errors. If further work substantiates this high potassium con- tent, it will pose an interesting geochemical problem, particularly as even Kampala rainwater (Simon Visser, oral communication, 1960) contains as much potassium (1.7 ppm) as sodium. Parts of Africa have a heavy rainfall on old weathered rock surfaces with extensive swamps to purify the rain- water after it falls. The result can be a very dilute water indeed. Some of the Rhodesian lakes in table 60 have less ionic material than silica, while the stream near Nabugabo (table 58, analysis J) must be almost the most dilute surface water in the world. Its conductivity is only 7.5 micromhos — one-quarter that of Kampala rain. A few analyses for waters of Somalia are presented in table 61. Most of these analyses are for samples that were collected in the rainy season. In the dry season, as the January sample from the Uebi Scebeli shows, the streams of Somalia are much more concentrated. The seasonal variations in dissolved solids, however, are not as great in the Guiba as they are in the Uebi Scebeli. Notice that sulfate is rather high in these streams, especially in the dry season. The streams of Mozambique exhibit a similar variation in content and composition of dissolved materials, as table 62 shows. Table 60. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Northern Rhodesia and adjacent Tanganyika [Analyses are by the Government Chemist, London, and may be found in Ricardo (1938, p. 75)J A B C D HCOj 425 2.9 25.8 <.003 <3 .3 12.2 4.6 NU 149.4 19.4 .8 1.5 76.7 Nil 2.3 .8 <.006 1.1 <.05 1.1 .1 NU 5.1 2.2 .1 .1 16.9 3.4 1.2 .7 <.3 <003 <.05 .4 .3 NU 1.7 .7 .1 .2 2.9 7.6 SOt-* -.- - .7 CI-' 1.4 N02-1 <. 003 N03- 1 <. 03 POr^ - <. 05 Ca+» .6 Mg+' .3 Ll+i .._ NU Na« 3 K+> 2.4 Fe . 1 Al .1 Si02 . 13.3 719 29.9 11.6 29.5 A. Lake Rukwa, Tanganyika, South Basin. B. Lake Bangweulu, Northern Rhodesia, open water. C. Shiwa Ngandu, Northern Rhodesia. D. Lake Chila, Abercorn, Northern Rhodesia. Table 61.— Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Somalia [Data are from unpublished analyses by George R. Wilson of the Amministra- zione Fiduciaria Italiana della Somalia] A B C D E F G HCOri 180 64 18 62 13 } » 181 72 26 62 14 22 176 84 18 62 12 25 158 72 24 61 12 17 110 720 140 315 45 31 81 80 20 61 13 21 117 SO t -2 76 CI-' 80 Ca+» Mg+» 62 9 Na+i K>i 44 Total dissolved soUds >352 >377 >377 >344 > 1,360 >276 >388 A. Uebi Scebeli at Belet Uen, Sept. 26, 1957. B. Uebi Scebeli at Bulo Burti, Sept. 26, 1957. C. Uebi Scebeli at Mahaddei, Sept. 27, 1957. D. Uebi Scebeli at Agfoi, Sept. 28, 1957. E. Uebi Scebeli at Agfoi, Jan. 9, 1958. F. Uebi Scebeli at Oenale, Sept. 28, 1957. G. Guiba near Ionte, Jan. 16, 1958. The dissolved mineral content of the streams of the humid parts of west Africa is much lower than those of Mozambique, as may be seen from most of the analyses of tables 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, and 69. The head- G34 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 62. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Mozambique [All analyses are from unpublished data of the ReparticSo Teenies de Industria e Oeologica of the Provincla de Mocambique] A B C D E F Q H HCO3-'..- 246.6 24.5 182.1 49.2 23.8 }ll9.3 6 520.2 322.1 84.5 124.6 45.6 / 175. 8 \ 5.9 .1 4.3 39.8 79.2 Tr. 5.9 14.6 4 },8 } 2.7 26.4 144 5.2 14.2 19.3 12.3 1 20.6 / 4.6 ITr. 44.4 3.8 53.3 1.6 3.4 45.1 Tr. Tr. 7.4 82.7 111.6 4.3 16.4 } 74.6 } 3.2 31.8 12 10.8 44 1.3 2.1 34.6 .3 18.7 1.2 SOr" 39.7 C1-' 143.4 Ca+i _ Mg+» 5.4 4.4 Na* 1 - 96.6 K+i-_ FeiOi 6.8 AIiOi SiOa 51.2 16 24.8 40.4 Total dissolved 703 1.320 138 236 176 332 124 338 A. Rio Inharombe (Abst. agua Maxixe). B. Rio Mutomodi (Antonio Enes). C. Rio Messinge (Vila Cabral). D. Rio Limpopo (Pafuri). E. Rio Ratani (Nacala). F. Lagoa Galumue. G. Lagoa Nhajosse. H. Lagoa Legume (Vinanculos). waters of some of the large west African rivers, such as the Congo, lie in rather dry regions and so there are a few analyses, such as those for lakes Kivu and Tan- ganyika, with a rather high total dissolved salt content. Rivers such as the Senegal and Konkoure are more representative of the humid tropics. Unfortunately it has not been possible to find analyses of the down- stream parts of either the Niger or the Congo, so it is not possible to characterize these streams directly. Between Niamey, for which there is a reasonably complete analysis, and Lokoja above the confluence of the Benue, for which there are a few scraps of data, the bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride content all decrease, but the silica content rises. The Benue is probably a dilute water. It seems likely, therefore, that the Niger at its mouth is a water high in silicate with somewhat more than 50 ppm of total dissolved solids. A selection of data for Ghana is given in tables 66, 67, and 68. The high dissolved-solids content of Lake Bosumtwi is noteworthy. Table 63. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Angola These analyses are from the unpublished records of the Reparticao Central dos Servicos de Geologia e Minas of the Provincla de Angola. The agreement of anion and cation equivalent sums suggests that the sodium figures have been obtained by calculation] A B C D E HCOI-' 30.5 Tr. 7.1 .0 1.7 2.1 10.3 24.4 3.5 49 10 14 152 24 20 26 13 28 19 54 so.-* 12.5 C1-' - 16 N03- 1 - - - Ca+» 2.8 1.2 4.6 6 6 18 .06 24.3 Mg+> 12.9 Na« 4.3 Fe 13.9 SiOi 21.7 >51.7 >36. 5 >103 2S2 150 1 Recalculated from Fea03 -f- AI2O3 on the assumption that only Fej03 was present. A. Rio Cunene at Colhida, Apr. 14, 1956. B. Rio Membla, near Macedo de Cavaleiros. C. Rio Caua at Quissama. D. Rio Bengo at frente do motor no. 1. E. Rio Bengo near Boa Vista. Table 64. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Congo River basin A B C D E F O H I J HCOr 1 1, 108. 4 32.4 42. 4 Trace 97.7 15. 4 627.6 17. 8 23. 8 1.3 . 003 . 1 8.4 67 . 4 94 8 63 . 1 . 4 9.8 1. 00071 92.8 2. 1 15. 5 1.8 .003 <. 05 12. 9 9. 1 <• 1 16. 4 2. 4 <• 1 .3 22.4 1. 00015 169. 2 5.8 8 1.3 .003 .05 29.6 15.7 . 4 13. 2 1.7 <• 1 . 2 28.3 1. 00023 381.8 43 28.3 <• 3 <. 003 . 1 11. 9 41. 6 . 4 59.9 33. 1 . 1 . 2 6.6 1. 00044 415.2 4 28 1.8 .006 .6 15. 2 43. 7 .8 64 2 33. 5 <• 1 .3 13.5 1. 00049 12. 2 28.8 5.3 3. 1 61 9.6 .02 18.3 S 11 .4 10.8 2.4 12.3 6.8 31.6 7.2 .9 4.5 .3 8.8 6 40.8 4 11.9 4.9 1.2 5.3 1.2 9.6 4.8 .6 6 2 11.8 3.6 16.6 5.6 1 4.7 1.1 11.4 1.6 33 7 .7 3 1.1 12.6 1.8 26.8 103 NO3-1 Ca +1 12 Mg+! 28 Na +1 / 204 \ 36 K+i 8 AliOi SiO. 16 Total dissolved solids. 111 133 93.2 49.9 72.7 90.1 91 867 ' Includes 117 ppm COr 1 . A. Owabi stream, Kumasi. Mean of 8 analyses of samples taken above and below the dam during the months of Feburary, March, June, August, and October. B. River Aboabo, just south of Kumasi. O. Stream flowing into Aboabo, close to railway. D. Stream near Mampong, Ashanti. Mean of 2 analyses. E. River Adra near Kumasi. F. River Adega near Kumasi. G. River Ankonia near Kumasi. H. Lake Bosumtwi near Isasi. Mean of 2 analyses by W. H. Bennett from depths of 3 and 4 ft below surface. Table 68. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Northern Territories, Ghana A B O HC03- 1 33 .8 52.6 .5 .0 3.6 .4 8.9 3.4 7 .9 Tr. 10.4 42. 4 so,- 2 . 1 F" 1 ci- 1 } } . 2 .3 3. 5 1.9 4.2 2 3. 8 N03- 1 Ca+2 5.4 Mg+ 2 -- .. - 3. 4 Na +1 K+» .. 4. 6 Fe 2 3 -- . .- - -.- AI2O3 .. . 4 Mn SiO-2 14. 4 6 Total dissolved solids 60. 3 87.7 66. 1 c. River Naboggo, Pong Tamale. Mean of 2 analyses, October and December. Tamale Reservoir. Mean of 5 analyses, months of Feburary, March, May, November, and December. Small stream, Tamale. Feb. 1933. G36 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 69. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from French West Africa [These data are from unpublished work carried out by the Service Geologique of French West Africal A B C D E F G H HCOr 1 - 30 11 3 42 15.5 25 <1 11.5 5 16 1.1 32 6.3 4.3 26 7 2.5 24.4 11.9 5.1 24 27 7 38 11 18 60 SOr 1 5 C1-' — 10 NOr 1 — POr* .- Ca+»— 10 1 2.5 2.4 5.5 2.4 4.8 1.6 6.5 1 2 1 5.4 1.1 }n.i 6 1 18 6.5 2 20 6.5 Mg+»_ 2.8 Na +1 K+> Fe Tr. Al 3.5 1 1.4 i 1.5 12 Tr. SiOi 3 Total dissolved >63.4 >116 >56.9 >47 >60.4 >84.5 >97.5 98.3 ' Includes iron, both determined as oxides, so this converted figure may be slightly too low. A. Senegal River at Kayes. Auk. 26, 1955. B. Sangalcam River near Dakar. Mar. 15, 1956. C. Marigot Lue River at Beyla. Mean of 2 analyses, Feb. 27, 28, 1957. D. Konkoure River at Sonapiti. Apr. 20, 1957. E. KonkourS River at Kabea. Mean of 7 analyses, Jan. and Apr. 1954. F. Oua-Oua River at Kindia. Dec. 2, 1954. G. Niger River at Kourassa. Dec. 10, 1954. H. Niger River at Niamey. Mean of 3 analyses, Mar. 5, 1951 and Mar. 5, 1953 Table 70. — Analyses, in milligrams per liter, of water from Algeria [All analyses are from unpublished reports made available by the Service des Etudes Scientifiques of the Ministere de l'Algerie] A B C D E F G H HC03-1 291 125 161 34 122 44 51 184 61 28 52 16 21 309 229 384 30 108 112 241 173 93 56 56 14 67 165 115 73 2 72 17 55 184 273 331 29 126 31 216 207 135 72 87 29 68 201 SOr 1 — 465 Cl-i 392 NOr 1 ' 35 Ca + '._ 151 Mg« 66 Na* 1 270 Total dissolved >828 >362 > 1,410 >449 >499 >1,190 >688 >1,580 ' Nitrate figures represent means of a smaller number of analyses than the major ions. A. Oued Mekerra at Chanzy, mean of 40 analyses, 1950-54. B. Oued Sebaou at Pont de Bougie, mean of 150 analyses, 1949-53. C. Oued el Hammam at Trois Rivieres, mean 01 20 analyses, 1953. D. Oued Bou Namoussa at La Chelfia, mean of 20 analyses, 1946-52. E. Oued Kebir de l'Est at Yusuf, mean of 20 analyses, 1951-53. F. Oued Chen at Medjez-Amar, mean of 22 analyses, 1951-53. G. Oued Mazafran at Pont du Fer a Cheval, mean of 30 analyses, 1950. H. Oued Chelif at Charron, mean of 21 analyses, 1953. Some additional information about the composition of the waters of Africa may be found in the partial analyses of Harrison and Elsworth (1958), Hutchinson, Pickford, and Schuurman (1932), Macfadyen (1952), and Baker (1958). SOUTH AMERICA The waters of South America are very inadequately known, although they have been investigated sporad- ically for almost a century. For many of the rivers, particularly the southern ones, there are no better data available than the ones which were presented in the last edition of this book. For the northern rivers there exists a large amount of new data — (see for example, Bonazzi (1950) and Bond (1935))— but most of the published analyses are incomplete. Some analyses for the water of Venezuela are pre- sented in table 71. The Lago de Maracaibo shows the influence of sea salt. The Orinoco is a typical river of the humid tropics, except for being a little high in sodium and a little low in silica. As was the case with Bosumtwi in Ghana, the lakes are considerably more concentrated than the rivers. Considerable progress is being made with the study of the waters of Peru. The object of these studies seems to be practical rather than geochemical, and, unfortunately for present purposes, most of the atten- tion is being given to ground-water supphes, but the analj'ses of these are remarkably detailed, and a few surface waters also have been analyzed completely. Three of these are presented in table 72 along with some miscellaneous analyses recalculated from the previous edition of this book. The analysis of the Laguna Encantada suggests marine contamination. Lagoa Escondida, though concentrated, is far from the sea and its high sodium and chloride content is probably due to evaporation with precipitation of less soluble Table 71. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from Venezuela [All data from unpublished analyses of the Direcion de Geologia of the Ministerio de Minas e Hidrocarburos of Venezuela] A B C D E F G H I J K L HCOi-i 84 147 .25 1,140 .00 .002 38 92 614 .25 .40 .00 .00 50 113 154 .10 520 .15 .002 46 38 330 Tr. .40 .00 .00 28 22 8.8 .10 1 .40 .000 3.2 .5 8.7 .25 .5 .00 .00 8 413 340 2 42 .05 .000 24 65 200 Tr. .05 .00 .00 14 437 356 2 48 Tr. .00 20 81 193 .00 .00 .00 .00 54 130 10 .25 6 .25 .033 25 11 9.2 .10 18 .00 .30 24 134 40 .10 5 .30 .010 51 7.2 1.9 .15 14 .00 .15 12 65 6 .15 2 .15 .011 16 4.6 2.1 .15 2.20 .00 .00 12 108 18 .25 2 1 .003 31 8 1 .05 4 Tt. Tr. 20 38 14 .10 24 1.50 .090 18 5 7.4 .30 12 Tr. .40 21 60 20 .10 1 .67 .060 19 5 2 .15 4 .00 Tr. 24 125 SO.-" F-i 38 .05 Ol-i.. 27 NOr 1 .35 N02"> .003 Ca+» 40 Mg*' 11 Na*.._ 17 Fe, soluble Fe, total .25 2 .05 .10 SiOi 11 2,170 1,230 53.5 1,100 1,190 234 266 110 193 142 136 272 A. Lago de Maracaibo, Feb. 14, 1952. B. Lago de Maracaibo, Sept. 2, 1952. C. Rio Orinoco at Puerto Ayacuho, Apr. 11, 1953. D. Lago at Valencia, 200 m from the coast, Apr. 14, 1956. E. Laguna de Valencia, north of Isla de Candamo, Sept. 13, 1950. F. Rio Ouarico, Sept. 21, 1954. G. Rio Coiedes, near the new Rio Cojedes bridge, Nov. 18, 1953. H. Rio Portuguesa, Nov. 20, 1953. I. Motatan Rio, Dec. 22, 1949. J. Escalante Rio. Nov. 17, 1952. K. Chama Rio, Nov. 27, 1952. L. Rio Yaracuy, Dec. 21, 1956. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G37 Table 72. — Miscellaneous analyses, in parts per million, of South American waters (Analyses A-C are from unpublished records of the Ministerio de Fomento y Obras Fublicas of Peru. This Ministry has accumulated many partial analyses of lake and river waters and many complete analyses of spring and well waters in addition to the few presented here] A B c D E F G H HCOi-i 206 435 1,888 199 152 28 228 5.4 .000 2,004 46 1,242 Nil Nil .002 Nil NU 14 6 Nil 1,660 i 193 15.6 35 10.8 5 9.4 1.7 1 18.7 .8 7.5 17.7 SOr ! .5 C1-' . 2.7 Br' I->.. 17.8 .000 Trace .000 526 90 7.6 694 23 .000 Trace 1.46 4.7 Trace Trace 7.8 NOr 1 - 11.7 .000 .000 104 9.6 25.2 5.8 .000 .000 .46 1.56 5.23 .056 .000 67 6.6 .0 1.7 1 Trace .000 .05 .02 .39 .33 .71 12 NO" 1 POr 1 Ca* 2 8 3.1 1.2 .9 .28 1.9 2.1 Mg« 1 Li« Na+"-_. . 2.1 .06 2.1 .16 8 1.2 3 5 K+>._ . 11 NH ( *i. HBOj Fe 10 1.5 5 1.5 1.6 2.5 Al . Pb. Mn.. .0 18.7 .0 13.9 NU 160 810) 33.9 15.8 40.8 16.8 Total dissolved 3,900 556 329 - 5,350 103 34.1 81.5 48 i By calculation. A. Laguna Encantada, Peru, Jan. 11, 1957, analysis by E. Zapata VaUe and E. Camet. B. Agua de Vitarte, Peru, Oct. 26, 1956, analysis by E. Arciniega and E. Camctt. (May be ground water.) C. Agua de Puquio, Peru, June 10, 1952, analysis by E. Camet and E. Arciniega. (May be ground water.) D. Lagoa Escondida, Estado de Mato Grosso, Brazil. Campos Paiva (1944, p. 47-48). E. Barima River above Eclipse Falls, British Guiana. Clarke (1924b, after Harrison and Reid, 1913). F. Essequibo River above Wataputa Falls, British Guiana, Clarke (1924b, after Harrison and Reid, 1913). G. Demerara River above Malalli FaUs, British Guiana, Clarke (1924b, after Harrison and Reid, 1913). H. Courantyne River, British Guiana, Clarke (1924b, after Harrison and Reid, 1913). ions. The rivers of British Guiana are rather dilute and remarkably high in silica. In addition to the analyses cited here there are more of the same kind in Kyle (1897), and numerous analyses lacking most or all of the major cations in Sioli (1950, 1951, 1953, 1955), Catalano (1927), Manoff (1939), and Freise (1937). Derkosch and Loffler (1961) present data for 9 cations and semiquantitative information about trace elements in 25 Andean lakes. The best analyses for the Amazon system are recal- culated from the previous edition of this book and pre- sented in table 73. There are many recent analyses of water from Amazonia, particularly in a number of papers by Sioli (1950, 1951, 1953, 1955) but they lack most or all of the major cations. It is remarkable that the few scraps of data presented in table 73 should have stood virtually alone for so long, not only as the best information about the Amazon, but also as the best for any large humid tropical river. They have, perforce, figured largely in all global computations of hydro- geochemistry, and they should be replaced by a more nearly comprehensive series of data. No new data are available for the southern part of South America nor is any work in progress. Pastore and Huidoboro (1952) is said to contain partial analyses Table 73. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from the Amazon River and its tributaries [Analyses A-D are from Clarke (1924b)] A B C D HCOr ! - 17.9 .8 2.6 5.4 .5 1.6 1.8 •1.9 10.6 41 4.3 2.3 12.5 1.5 1.1 1.4 13 11.1 22.5 2.8 2.2 6.4 1.4 .7 1.4 ■2.2 9.1 24.1 SOi" 1 4.8 ci-». 3.1 Ca« . 7.1 Mg+ 2 1.8 Na« .9 K+i 1.9 Fe '2.8 SiOi 9.5 43.1 78.2 48.7 56 i Computed from Ali03+Fe20a on the basis that Fej03 alone was present. The Amazon at Obidos. Mean of 2 analyses by F. Katzer, 1903. The Amazon between the Narrows and Santarem. Analysis by P. F. Frank- land. The Tapajos. Analysis by F. Katzer, 1903. The Xingu. Analysis by F. Katzer, 1903. of 37 waters of Argentina, but it has not been available for consultation and may deal with wells and springs. A selection of the old data is presented in table 74. The generally high silica content of these waters is their outstanding characteristic. Table 74. — Analyses, in parts per million, of water from rivers in the southern part of South America [Analyses recalculated from Clarke (1924b)] A B C D E F G HC03-2 32 7 11.5 35 10 15.9 19.4 1.6 .2 2.2 3.9 1.1 1.5 1.2 18.5 126 9.2 10.3 241 337 261 99 16.8 3.5 58.8 SOr 2 18.9 CI-i .. 5.8 NO3-1 Ca«. 5.6 3 15.8 2.8 2.8 3 19.4 7.3 2.8 15 4.1 2.2 1.6 20.3 26.4 5.2 14.5 7.5 8.2 .88 13.7 137 34.8 196 53.5 24.9 6.6 2.3 7.3 .79 13.7 Mg+2 2.6 Na+i 7.5 K«-_- 10.6 Fe. 1.52 Al .26 Si02 . 74.1 14.7 12.8 Total dissolved solids. 103 114 49.6 222 1,330 176 133 A. Rio La Plata 5 miles above Buenos Aires. Analysis by J. J. Kyle, 1878. B. The Parana 5 miles above its entry into La Plata. Analysis by J. J. Kyle, 1878. C. The Uruguay midstream opposite Salto. Analysis by J. J. Kyle, 1878. D. Rio Primero, Argentina. E. Rio SaladiUo, Argentina. Analysis by A. Doering, 1883. F. Rio de Arias, Salto, Argentina. Analysis by M. Siewert, 1883. G. Rio de los Reyes, Jujuy, Argentina. Analysis by M. Siewert, 1883. GLOBAL COMPUTATIONS With the data for the composition of some of the major rivers of the world at hand, it is possible to esti- mate the mean composition of river water and the total amount of chemical substance carried to the sea by the rivers of the world. For this purpose it is necessary to have some information about the area of the land sur- face of the world and about the runoff of the various rivers. The following computations have been based principally on the discharge tables in a mimeographed copy of the "Recommendation of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology" which was accepted by the Council of the Association and presented to the delegates on September 13, 1957. The tables form the basis for a resolution that a river-sampling net be set up G38 DATA OP GEOCHEMISTRY to repair the obvious deficiencies in the data of river chemistry. They are based principally on the work of L'vovich (1945), and appear to be substantially correct, except for a few spelling mistakes and two more im- portant ones. The area of the Niger drainage basin is given as 216,000 square miles, whereas it is actually about 800,000 square miles, and the estimated total discharge for the continent of North America seems to be about 2,000,000 cfs too high. Additional information was obtained from the "Oxford Atlas" (Lewis and others, 1951) and the "Encyclopedia Britannica" (Yust, 1949) as well as from some manuscript notes made from L'vovich's paper. The original was not available while the com- putations were being made. For the United States some information was obtained from "Large rivers of the United States" (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1949a). NORTH AMERICA For half of North America there are sufficient chemical and discharge measurements to permit a direct computation of the amount of dissolved sub- stance carried by the large rivers. This yields a figure of 92 metric tons per square mile per year. It would be possible to obtain an estimate for the entire conti- nent by taking this as a representative sample, but a more accurate mean can be obtained by weighting these large rivers in proportion to the part of the entire con- tinent that they represent, instead of in proportion to their own drainage areas. The difficulty in making this kind of estimate is that there are some parts of the continent that are climatically very different from any part whose rivers are known, so that a few data from other parts of the world will have to be used. The data are presented in table 75, supplemented by estimates of conditions in places where they are lacking. The two biggest gaps are in the Arctic regions and in Mexico and Central America. These have been filled by assuming that various parts of the areas concerned were similar to parts of Alaska and South America. A weighted mean of the information in this table leads to an estimate of 85 metric tons per mile being carried each year by the rivers of the North American conti- nent. When proper allowance is given for the way in which bicarbonate is expressed, this figure is about 8 percent above that obtained by Clarke (1924a, b). A slight further correction might be made because this figure is a mean for the amount delivered to the sea by the entire land surface, including closed basins, but it is evident that the agreement between this estimate and the previous one is fairly good. Further informa- tion for arctic and tropical North America will permit a more exact estimate of chemical denudation of Table 75. — Discharge and chemical denudation of North America Area Runoff (thou- (thou- Total Region sands sands dissolved Chemical analyses used square cubic solids miles) feet per second) in (ppm) North Atlantic slope 148 210 116 Hudson River at Hud- (U.S.) son. South Atlantic slope 284 325 155 Tombigbee River near (U.S.). Epes. Mississippi River. 1,250 620 223 At New Orleans. West Gulf of Mexico U.S. 320 55 881 Rio Grande at Laredo. 246 23 711 Yuma main canal. Great Basin 215 117 80 152 Pacific basins Sacramento River at Sacramento. 262 345 125 Columbia River at Cas- cade Locks. St. Lawrence River 498 500 161 At Sorel. 660 260 214 At Ft. Simpson. Nelson River 450 86 125 94 210 82 At mouth. At New Westminster. 360 180 208 At Eagle. Franklin Territory 554 139 91 Mean of arctic Alaska lakes. Keewatin Territory 228 114 214 Mackenzie at Ft. Simp- son. [Mean of Moser River, Newfoundland 43 112 43 112 62 62 Wallace River, Mi- l ramichi River, Andrews Maritime Province 51 51 62 lakes and Ellerslie I Creek. Hudson Bay (Quebec 592 592 116 Mean of Abitibi, Matta- and Ontario). gami, Rainy, and Ka- puskasing Rivers. Alaska south of Yukon . _ 195 214 52 Kenai River. Alaska north of Yukon. _ 195 49 91 Mean of arctic Alaskan lakes. Minor coastal streams. 319 351 82 Fraser at New West- British Columbia ana minster. elsewhere. Mexico 758 20 881 Rio Grande at Laredo. 150 114 Rio Parana above La Guatemala 42 9 65 114 Plata. British Honduras Rio Parana above La Honduras 59 13 54 23 29 3S3 64 Plata. Salvador Nicaragua. Costa Rica River Orinoco at Puerto Panama Ayacuho. Sum or mean 8,172 5,100 142 North America but the present one is certainly of the correct order of magnitude. EUROPE The chemical denudation of Europe is not easy to estimate because the discharge of that continent is divided among a multiplicity of small rivers. The principal rivers for which data are available are listed in table 76, but they account for less than a quarter of the total discharge. The Volga basin, of course, contributes nothing to the sea, but there is a substantial part of western Europe, particularly Iceland, Fennos- candia, and the British Isles, that must have a heavier runoff than the rivers listed. This area has been estimated at 500,000 square miles, with a discharge of 700,000 cfs. There is no firm base to use for com- puting the chemical composition of this water, for most of the rivers that have been analyzed are small ones draining very soluble sedimentary rocks in south- ern England. It may be assumed that the composition is represented by the three rivers in Sweden for which data are available, although this will probably lead CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G39 to an underestimate of chloride and perhaps of silica. The remainder of Europe has been assumed to be like that part drained by the principal rivers, and a weighted mean leads to the result that about 110 metric tons per square mile are carried away each year. This is the highest rate of chemical denudation of any continent. The figure may be lowered somewhat when data become available for Mediterranean Europe, but it does seem well established that the rate of denuda- tion is high. This is probably due mainly to the moist European climate, although the large areas of fine- grained Pleistocene deposits may also be an important factor. Table 76. — Discharge and chemical denudation of Europe Region Area (thou- sands square miles) Runoff (thou- sands cubic feet per second) Total dissolved solids in- (ppm) Chemical analyses used 315 126 140 56 37 177 52 22 86 500 600 2,100 225 145 120 76 59 59 24 24 24 700 1,340 225 45 247 215 231 287 201 180 568 88 At Budapest. S. Ust-Tilma. d. Zvoz. At Arnheim. At Geneva. S. Razumovka. Elbe _ At Tetschen. At Toulouse. Don .. S. Aksalskaia. Well-watered western Europe Volga and other closed basins. Remainder like the mean of the major rivers. Mean of Byske-elf, Ljusnan and Fyris. 202 Mean of Danube to Don, above. Sum or mean 4,211 2,796 182 ASIA Except for the U.S.S.R. and Japan, most of Asia is hydrologically very little known. The estimate for the discharge for the temperate parts of the Pacific basins, shown in table 77, is close to the discharge rate for the Amur, and intermediate between the rates for the Yangtze and the Hwang Ho. The estimate for the discharge rate of the tropical parts of Asia is inter- mediate between the rates L'vovich gives for the Malayan Archipelago and the Ganges. The most Table 77. — Discharge and chemical denudation of Asia Region Area (thou- sands square miles) Runoff (thou- sands cubic feet per second) Total dissolved solids (ppm) Chemical analyses used 2,462 279 3,000 4,644 7,600 2,456 225 2,250 7,500 116 111 52 163 Alekin's mean for Arctic basins one-third, Kara Sea, rest two-thirds. River Tone at Sawara- Rest of temperate Pacific basin. Tropical drainage, in- cluding East Indies. shi. Alekin's mean for Pacific basins of U.S.S.R. Mean of Mae Khong at Mukdaharn and Ganges at Calcutta. Sum or mean 17,985 12,431 142 uncertain part of the whole computation is the tropical section, for here the figures for both discharge and chemical content are of low reliability. They represent a considerable improvement over the data available in 1924, however, and lead to an estimate of 83 metric tons removed in solution per square mile of the Asiatic landmass, a very respectable figure when one considers the extensive areas of desert that contribute nothing to the total. AFRICA There are no satisfactory analyses for any major river of Africa, but many data which can be used in estimating the chemical denudation. The basis for such an estimate is shown in table 78. There are no complete analyses for the Orange and the Zambezi, but the Cunene and Limpopo are fair-sized rivers in the same general part of Africa, and probably approach them in chemical composition. The four rivers chosen to represent the miscellaneous humid parts of Africa have been chosen from among a much larger number of analyses of rather dilute tropical waters. The major rivers of Africa, taken by themselves, give a misleading impression of the total runoff. A weighted mean of the chemical composition of African rivers leads to an estimate of 63 metric tons removed each year for each square mile of total land surface. Table 78. — Discharge and chemical denudation of Africa Runoff Area (thou- Total Region (thou- sands dissolved Chemical analyses used sands cubic solids square feet per in (ppm) miles) second) Nile 1,150 820 100 352 161 144 Below Cairo. Orange and Zambezi Mean of Limpopo at Pafuri and Cunene at Colhida. 1,500 1,600 80 Mean of Bankasu at Ruki and Zongo at Inkiai and Zele- Wungo. 800 980 326 226 98 366 At Niamey. Mean of Uebi Scebeli at gions. Agfoi^and Guiba at Ionte. Miscellaneous wet re- 2,500 4,000 96 Mean of Rio Bengo at gions. Boa Vista, Senegal at Kayes, Konkoure at Kabea and Owabi at Kumasi. 3,750 Sum or mean 11, 500 6,604 121 AUSTRALIA Data on which to base an estimate of chemical denudation for Australia are very scant. About one- third of the continent lacks rivers flowing to the sea and may be left out of computation. The perennial rivers, for which there are numerous analyses, are mostly very dilute. They are in regions of abundant rainfall, flowing over rocks some of which are very resistant to weathering and all of which have been G40 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY leached for a long time. In table 79, these perennial rivers are represented by the water of the Eose River. The intermittent rivers pose something of a problem. The Murray River has a very low discharge rate, as befits a river flowing through a semiarid land, but it is surprisingly dilute. This river shows considerable fluctuation from year to year — during some years it ceases to flow at all — and one cannot help wondering if the discharge figures represent dry years and the chemical analyses wet years. If this is the case the chemical denudation for Australia will be underesti- mated to some extent, but even these figures of doubtful reliability suffice to show that the smallest continent contributes only a very small amount to the world total for chemical denudation. It appears to yield about 6 metric tons per square mile of total area. Table 79. — Discharge and chemical denudation of Australia Region Area (thou- sands square miles) Runoff (thou- sands cubic feet per second) Total dissolved solids in (ppm) Chemical analyses used 645 1,330 995 323 31 33 282 Intermittent rivers. dale. Murray River, South Australia. Sum or mean 2,970 354 59 SOUTH AMERICA There are no new data of consequence on which to base an estimate of the chemical denudation of South America. It seems more reasonable to use the Parana as representative of the less well watered parts of the continent than to use the very dilute Uruguay, as Clarke did; this leads, on the basis shown in table 80, to a figure of 73 metric tons of dissolved substance being removed per square mile per year. Table 80. — Discharge and chemical denudation of South America Region Area (thou- sands square miles) Runoff (thou- sands cubic feet per second) Total dissolved solids in (ppm) Chemical analyses used 340 2, 231 890 90 2,000 2,000 600 3,600 526 136 3,000 1,100 54 57 114 60 57 114 At Puerto Ayachuo. Mean of all 4 analyses. Opposite Salto. Mean of all 4 Amazon analyses. Parana above La Plata. Remainder similar to Amazon basin. Remainder similar to Parana basin. Sum or mean. 7,551 8,962 69 WORLD SUMMARY By multiplying the average chemical denudation of the continents by their size, one arrives at a figure of 3,905,000,000 metric tons for the total amount of mineral material carried in solution each year by the rivers flowing into the sea. This is almost 1,200,000,- 000 tons greater than the estimate of Clarke in 1924, but it is substantially below the earlier estimate of Sir John Murray (quoted in Clarke, 1924b, p. 63) which was estimated on rather meager data. It is evident from the difference between various independent estimates that an accurate assessment of the chemical substance carried by the rivers has not been reached. Although the current estimate rests on more accurate basic infor- mation than the earlier ones, there is some possibility that it may be appreciably too high. Our knowledge of the chemistry of rivers for much of the world, par- ticularly the humid tropics, rests upon a very small number of samples, rather than upon long-term studies during all seasons. Most of the annual discharge of a river having a variable discharge rate occurs during short periods of flood when the dissolved salt content is at its lowest, so infrequent haphazard sampling is likely to result in an overestimate of the mean salinity of the water which the river carries. This error is not likely to affect the figures for Europe and North Amer- ica, but it might influence the total for South America, Africa, and Asia. MEAN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WORLD RIVER WATER Weighted means have been calculated for the chemi- cal composition of the river waters of various continents as well as the world on the same basis as the calculations for chemical denudation. In a few cases it was neces- sary to supplement incomplete analyses with estimates for silica based on the silica content of similar waters. The Rose River analysis, used as a basis for computing the composition of the permanent rivers of Australia, has had 3.5 ppm of silica added to it, a quantity which is found in the similar dilute waters of Tasmania. The mean figures of Alekin and Brazhnikova (1957) for the Arctic and Pacific drainage systems of the U.S.S.R. lack silica. These have been supplemented by assuming that their silica contents were similar to those of the Mackenzie and St. Lawrence Rivers, respectively. Some important analyses lump sodium and potassium. In calculating world mean composition the combined Na + K of these analyses has been parti- tioned according to the Na/K ratio of the rest of the waters of the world. The results of this computation are summarized in table 81. The principal differences between the conti- nents are in the amounts of calcium and bicarbonate ions. The great variation in the nitrate and iron contents is insignificant for reasons that were dealt with at length above. The world mean for nitrate, however, may be of the correct order of magnitude. The mean for the river water of the world, 120 ppm, is somewhat lower than Clarke's 1924b data suggested, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES Table 81. — Mean composition of river waters of the world, in parts per million G41 II CO) so, Cl N0 3 Ca Me Na K Fo SiOi Sum North America South America 68 31 95 79 43 31.6 20 4.8 24 8. 4 13. 5 2.6 8 4. 9 6.9 8.7 12. 1 10 1 .7 3.7 .7 .8 .05 21 7. 2 31. 1 18. 4 12. 5 3.9 5 1. 5 5.6 5.6 3.8 2.7 9 4 5.4 9. 11 2.9 1. 4 2 1.7 3 1. 4 0. 10 1. 4 .8 .01 1.3 .3 9 11. 9 7. 5 '11.7 23. 2 3.9 142 69 Europe 182 Asia 142 121 59 World 58.4 11. 2 7.8 1 15 4. 1 6.3 2.3 .67 13. 1 120 . 958 .233 . 220 .017 1. 428 .750 .342 . 274 . 059 1.425 ' Millequivalents of strongly ionized components. provided cognizance is taken of the different way in which he expressed bicarbonate. It is, however, very close to the weighted mean of Conway (1942, 1943) which was based on Clarke's data but took into account the relative abundance of dilute tropical rivers. MINOR CONSTITUENTS GENERAL REMARKS This section deals with constituents represented in so few of the general tables that they demand separate treatment. A number of chemical elements do not seem to have been detected in a single lake or river water. They are tellurium, all the noble gases except argon and radon, indium, thallium, scandium, yttrium, the rare earths, hafnium, germanium, columbium, 1 tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, the platinum and palla- dium metals, and actinium. FLUORINE, BROMINE, AND IODINE Numerous data for fluorine and a few for bromine and iodine are in the tables of general analyses. There is an extensive body of information about the fluorine and iodine content of lakes and rivers because of the medical significance of these elements. There is less information available about bromine. Most fresh waters have less than the single part per million of fluorine which is regarded as optimal for health of human teeth. In concentrated waters the content may be somewhat higher, but it is usually limited by the low solubility of calcium fluoride. Many analj T ses include more fluorine than should be dissolved in the presence of accompanying calcium, and it is probably generally true, as Kobayashi (1954) has found, that an appreciable part of the analytically determined fluorine is not present in simple solution. Waters unusually high in fluorine are commonly associated with vulcanism, igneous rocks, or apatite deposits. The reader seeking data on fluorine in addition to those included in the general analyses may consult the 1 1 am informed by Dr. Heinz Lofflcr that he has detected minute amounts of columbium in East African high altitude lakes. following papers for various parts of the world: Chamberlain (1946); Cherkinskii and others (1953); Gabovich (1952); Gandra (1950); Kobayashi (1954); Kredba and Hamackova (1950); Krepogorskii and Bogusevich (1953); Kubota (1952); Mose and Exner (1952); Novokhatskii and Kalinin (1953); Paraje (1950); Richard and Vialard-Goudou (1954); Tageeva (1943); Tomic (1951, 1954); Van Burkalow (1948); Vinogradov, Danilova, and Selivanov (1937); Walker (1940); Wilson (1954); Mackereth and Heron (1954); Juday, Birge, and Meloche (1938); Konovalov (1959). Konovalov's paper is of particular interest because it permits computation of the mean fluorine content of the rivers of about 80 percent of the entire area of the U.S.S.R. at 0.089 ppm. Reliable information on the bromine content of lakes and rivers is rather scarce. Correns (1956), reviewing the geochemistry of the halogens, accepts the single value of Behne (1953) for the water of the Grosse Bode as the best available estimate of the bromine content of the river water of the world, but the mean content of U.S.S.R. rivers may be computed from the data of Konovalov (1959) to be 0.019 ppm — more than three times Behne's value. This is almost certainly closer to the global total. There are many other analyses, but most of them are for saline lakes or for rivers influenced by rock-salt deposits or industrial sewage. Some of these data are shown in table 82. From this information it is not possible to tell with assurance whether the CI/Br ratio of lake and river waters departs significantly from the marine ratio of 294:1, although it is likely to be slightly higher than this. More data are available for iodine than for bromine . but they have been collected for medical purposes and their geochemical usefulness is somewhat limited. An assortment of data for iodine and bromine that can be used for present purposes is included in table 82. Hutchinson (1957) believes that 0.2 ppb would be a reasonable mean figure for lakes and rivers. This seems rather low. The mean of 1.8 ppb of Goldschmidt G42 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 82. — Bromine and iodine content of river and lake waters Locality CI (ppm) Br (ppm) CI/Br I (ppm) Cl/I Author Laguna Encantada, Peru ._ 1,888 1,242 126, 500 166, 300 175, 000 77, 562 67, 960 f 180, 500 \ 206, 800 2.5 17. 8 Nil Zapata Valle and Camet (see table 72.) Campos Paiva (see table 72). Terreil (see table 51). Do Lagoa Escondida, Brazil Dead Sea surface. . . . Nil 4,600 4,900 7,000 667 <.01 3,400 3,900 .006 14-260 .0106 .0154 .0217 522-1, 740 .019 5-272 102 TY.-176. 6 16. 2 . 0005-. 140 .021 . 002-. 0101 .0045 28 34 25 223 Dead Sea 120 m .. __ _. Dead Sea 300 m__ ... Do Mean of 7 Crimean salt lakes. . Kurnakov and others (see table 42). T. R. Frost (see table 57). Loffler (1956) (see table 50). Lake Eyre, Australia . . Urmia Lake, Iran (2 analyses) . . 53 53 416 Grosse Bode .... Behne (1953). Volkov (1938). Heide and Kaeding (1954) (in- cludes more data of the same kind, not given here). Do Inder Lake (range) Saale at Goschwitz, annual mean. Saale at Kunitz _ 18. 5 22 123 1,745 1,429 5,668 . 0022 .0027 .0033 8,410 8, 150 37, 300 Saale at Leissling Do El'ton Lake. Feigelson (1939). Konovalov (1959). Cooke (1941). Rivers of the U.S.S.R .007 10 South Australian lakes and 1 creek: Range . Mean.. . . 13Romanian lakes: Range __ _ __ 613-57, 770 11,550 300+ Tr.-2. 2 .492 8, 300+ Petrescu (1940). Mean.. Various Russian rivers: Range Selivanov (1939a, b; 1944; 1946), as Mean. Various Russian lakes: Range __ . (1957). Do. Mean Rivers and springs of the Upper Svanety region: Range . . 0002- .0055 0-. 0043 0-. 010 . 00173 . 00001 >. 0001 . 00294 20, 000 Menzhinskaya (1944). Karger and Chapyzhnikov (1944). 63 lakes, rivers and reservoirs of the U.S.S.R.: Range.. _ _ _ 381 public water supplies of the State of Sao Paulo: Range Mean . _ (1955). Do. Some Finnish lakes Adlercreutz (1928), quoted in Hutchinson (1957, p. 562). Hutchinson (1957, p. 562-563). Lake Superior - Biwa-Ko, Japan, mean of 5 5.91 depths. (1956). (1934) is in better accord with the present information, but even it may be too low. The data gathered by Konovalov (1959) for the rivers of the U.S.S.R. yield a mean figure for iodine of 7.2 ppb. In addition to the papers to which reference already has been made, the interested reader may wish to con- sult the following for additional information on the iodine content of lakes and rivers: Bado and Trelles (1937); Buydens (1951); Dzens-Litovskii (1944); Dragomirova (1944); Jarchovsky and Pacal (1954); Grushvitaskii (1938);Nicolaev and Segel (1947); McHargue (1943): Shee (1940). The available data for the halogen content of river water do not seem to justify any modification of the estimate of the mean content of river water by Correns (1956): F, 0.26 ppm; CI, 8.3 ppm; Br, 0.006 ppm; and I, 0.0018 ppm. BORON Some data for the boron content of lakes and rivers are presented in table 83. Additional information will be found in tables 18, 19, 23, 56, 60, and 72 in the general analyses section, and in the earlier editions of this book. There appears to be a substantial body of information in Maldonado and Guevara (1950), which was not avail- able for consultation. Tageeva (1943) and Glebovich (1946) discuss the geochemistry of boron in the hydro- sphere. The California water quality publications for the years 1951-56 (Calif. Dept. Water Resources, 1956, 1957) contain many analyses for boron. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G43 Table S3. — Boron content of lakes and rivers Locality CI (PPm) B (ppm) B/Cl Author River Tone, Japan: mean of 10 samples. 6.162 0.345 0.0560 Muto (1956) Watarase River, Japan: 10.40 .197 .0190 Do. mean of 3 samples. Kiriu River, Japan: .158 .207 1.310 Do. mean of 6 samples. Agatsuma, Japan: 84.2 1.97 .0234 Do. mean of 4 samples. Okuresawa, Japan: 2.28 1.305 .5724 Do. mean of 4 samples. Rain water, Kiriu, 2.44 .098 .0403 Do. Japan: mean of 5 samples. Snow, Kiriu, Japan: 2.53 .107 .0436 Do. mean of 3 samples. Great Salt Late, Utah. 149. 224 43.5 . 00029 Odum and Parrlsh (1954). 6 Florida streams: 7.7 .019 .00285 Do. me34 3.289 2,825 8.5 .16 .4 21, 400 423 94.8 2,518 2,544 237 <1 16.4 >164 .4 13.2 33 .4 59.9 150 .8 64.2 80 . 0002-. 005 .0011 .0033 1.86-6.87 4.15 about 5 724-9, 814 3,772 ca. 1,500 Author Protia (1935). Borovik-Romanova, Korolev, and Kutsenko (1954). See table 72. Do. See table 19. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. See table 47. Do. W. H. Durum (written com- munication, 1960). RUBIDIUM Schmidt (1882, quoted in Hutchinson, 1957) re- ported 0.055 ppm of rubidium in the water of Lake Peipus. In the fight of more recent work, such as the spectrographic studies of Borovik-Romanova (1946), this concentration seems unduly high, and may rep- resent the deficiencies of the chemical methods of his time rather than the rubidium concentration of the hydrosphere. Yamagata (1951b) found the rubid- ium content of 14 rivers of Japan to range from G44 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY 0.0003 to 0.002 ppm, with a mean of 0.00116. The Na/Rb ratios ranged from 1,525 to 11,100 and the ratio of the mean values was 3,578. This is very similar to the findings of Borovik-Romanova already referred to, with an average concentration of 0.0016 ppm and a ratio of 4,166. The K/Rb ratio found by both of these workers is slightly in excess of 1,000, or more than 10 times as great as that found by Schmidt. Twenty-seven samples of water from major rivers of North America had a mean rubidium content of 0.0017 ppm (W. H. Durum, written communication, 1960). Rubidium seems to be considerably scarcer in the hydrosphere, from which it is removed biologically and probably chemically as well, than it is in the litkosphere. CESIUM The only analyses for cesium appear to be six deter- minations for rivers in Japan by Yamagata (1951b). He found a range of cesium content between 0.00005 and 0.0002 ppm. The Na/Cs ratio ranged from 9,300 to 89,400 and the ratio of the mean contents was 31,900. BERYIiliTOM Beryllium appears to have been determined only by Maliuga and Makarova (1956), who found 10 ppm of total dry residue in both the River Il'kikan and the River Gazimura, and by the U.S. Geological Survey, which found between 0.1 and 1 ppb in the Atchafalaya River, Louisiana (W. H. Durum, written communica- tion, 1960). STRONTIUM The strontium content of lakes and rivers has been studied most extensively by Oduni (1950, 1951, 1957), who found that the Sr/Ca ratio reflected the geologic environment, at least in part. It was high in the presence of evaporite deposits, pegmatites, volcanic rocks, fresh coral limestones, and limestones precipitated directly from sea water. Lower Sr/Ca ratios were found in association with consolidated limestones, re- placed limestones, dolomites, nonvolcanic mafic igneous rocks, and humid climate. A selection of Odum's data, together with those of several other authors, is pre- sented in table 85. Bristol Dry Lake is a locality where celestite concretions occur, and the strontium content of the Bristol water sample, which was very concentrated and came from a drainage ditch in the lakebed, is probably close to the maximum to be expected in lake waters. Additional information about strontium in water may be found in table 19, in earlier editions of this work, in the papers of Odum and Lohammar cited in table 85, and in papers by Braidech and Emery (1935), Borovik-Romanova, Korolev, and Kutsenko (1954), Maliuga and Makarova (1956), Grushko and Shipitsyn (1948), Nichols and McNall (1957), Horr, (1959), and Skougstadt and Horr (1960). Table 85. — Strontium content of lakes and rivers Locality Ca (ppm) Sr/Ca X 1,000 Sr (ppb) Author Housa tonic River, 22.9 0.91 45.6 Odum (1957). Conn. Hudson River at 18.6 2.65 107.9 Do. Poughkeepsie, N.Y. James River at Rich- 10.5 1.80 41.4 Do. mond, Va. Delaware River at 21.3 3.10 144 Do. Newcastle Ferry. Withlacooehee River, 43.2 3.7 350 Do. Gulf Hammock ,Fla. Dunn Creek, St. Johns 36.4 10.5 837 Do. River, Welaka, Fla. Prairie Creek, Gaines- 4.4 1.86 17.9 Do. ville, Fla. Apalachicola, Chatta- 13.1 1.08 30.9 Do. hoochee, Fla. Black Warrior River, 5.1 1.76 19.1 Do. Tuscaloosa, Ala. Hampton Lake, Fla 1.7 3.22 12 Do. Lake Kanapaha, 65.2 1.80 256 Do. Gainesville, Fla. Trout Lake, Wis 8.8 2.31 44.4 Do. Lake Mendota, Wis — 22.9 1.77 88.6 Do. Lake Erie 23.2 3 2.70 1.84 137 12.1 Do. Sebago Lake, Maine... Do. 8 Connecticut lakes 3.9 1.82 15.4 Do. draining ancient crystalline rock. 10 Connecticut lakes 16.2 1.13 49.9 Do. draining Triassic sediments. West Rock Pond, on 21.9 2.10 100.7 Do. basalt, Conn. University Lake, Pied- 4.6 3.80 38.3 Do. mont of North Caro- lina. Eastwood Lake, drain- 3.8 3.57 29.7 Do. ing residual clays of ancient crystaUino rocks, N.C. Singletary Lake, .35 3.50 2.7 Do. Coastal Plain, N.C. Lake Waccamaw, 6.3 2.39 33 Do. Miocene limestone outcrop, N.C. 4 volcanic lakes in the 31.1 5.28 357.2 Do. Philippine Islands. Great Salt Lake, Utah. 228 4.20 2,100 Do. Lowland Swedish 50 Lohammar (1938). lakes. Northern Swedish 14 Do. lakes. Drainage canal in a salt body of Bristol 220 962. 000 Durrell (1953). Dry Lake, Calif. Major North ca. 21 ca. 4.5 90 W. H. Durum American rivers. (written communi- cation, 1960). BARIUM Bowen (1948) found 10 ppb of barium in water from Linsley Pond, but could not detect it in hard waters from Connecticut. Braidech and Emery (1935) found larger quantities, between 30 and 1,000 ppb. The element has also been determined by Grushko and Shipitsyn (1948) and by Maliuga and Makarova (1956). The global Ca/Ba ratio would be about 1,500, accepting Bowen's figure as representative of lakes and rivers, or between 15 and 500, accepting the results of Braidech and Emery. The most representative set of data appears to be unpublished: 34 samples from major North American rivers had a mean content of 54 ppb, suggesting a Ca/Ba ratio of about 400 (W. H. Durum, written communication, 1960). CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G45 RADIUM Radium has attracted attention because of its radio- activity and there is much information about the concentration of this element in natural waters. Data for lakes and rivers are summarized in table 86. Most of this information is brought together and discussed by Lowder and Solon (1956). There is obviously considerable variation in the radium content of rivers. From the data presented in the table it appears that there was a tenfold discrepancy between the results of Lynch (in Lowder and Solon, 1956) and those of Hursh (1954, 1957), the two principal analysts involved, but actually Hursh gives a much larger body of data than those presented, which were selected because the waters had not been treated by flocculation, settling, and filtration before analysis. Among the data for treated waters gathered by Hursh are many radium concentrations as high as those of Lynch. For the Mississippi River, the only water which both have studied, Hursh obtained a higher value than Lynch, even after filtration. Table 86. — Radium content of lakes and rivers Location Radium (ppm) Author 7X10-'° Do 1. 5X10-1° 6X10-1° 4X10-1° (1956). Do. OMo River Do. Do. Monongahela River, Pa 3. 5X10-1° Do. Susquehanna River, Pa 5X10-1° Hess (1943), in Lowder and Solon Stagnant stream water, north- 4-17X10-'° (1956). Lynch, in Lowder and Solon west New York. (1956). Stream water, New Jersey 2-15X10-'° Do. 4-7X10-1° Do. Mississippi River, St. Louis, Mo. 1. 2-2. 9X10-1° Do. River Thames near Sutton Cour- .1X10-1° Jacobi (1949), in Lowder and tenay, England. Solon (1956). Normal surface water, U.S.A., 3.6-34.1X10-1° Love (1951), in Lowder and Solon 15 samples. (1956). Nashua River, Boston, Mass .14X10-1° Hursh (1954, 1957). Bull Run River, Portland, Oreg. .14X10-1° Do. Cottonwood Creek, Salt Lake .34X10-1° Do. City, Utah. Calaveras Reservoir, San Fran- . 18X10-" Do. cisco, Calif. Green River, Tacoma, Wash .02X10-1° Do. 0.33±0.04X10-i° RonaandUrry (1952). .25±.04X10"i° Do. Because there is a spread of almost three orders of magnitude in the analytical results, it is not possible to arrive at a reliable global estimate by taking the mean of such a small number of analyses, but for what it is worth the mean is 3.9 Xl0~ 10 ppm. This is only a little higher than the mean of all the available analyses of the Mississippi, including those made after treat- ment which might be expected to lower the radium content, and probably is of the correct order of mag- nitude. It is worth noting, however, that most people who have studied the matter believe the radium con- tent of rivers to be one complete order of magnitude lower (Holland and Kulp, 1954, 0.35 X10- 10 ; Koczy, 1954, 0.7 XlO" 10 ; Kohman and Saito, 1954, North America only, 0.3 XlO -10 ). The present estimate would indicate a Ca/Ra ratio for river water of 5 XlO 10 ; the earlier estimates, made on less nearly complete data, would indicate a ratio of about 5 XlO 11 . SELENIUM Selenium seems to have been studied only in the waters of areas where it is known to be particularly plentiful. Thus, in South Dakota, in an area where the element is locally abundant enough to be poison- ous, Searight and his co-workers (Searight and Moxon, 1945; Searight and others, 1946) found 21.4 and 85.5 ppb selenium in 2 ponds, at least one of which was above local ground-water level. The Colorado River system, in the places where it drains seleniferous soils, has contents of the element as high as 2,680 ppb (Williams and Byers, 1935; Byers and others, 1938). From this kind of information, it is hardly possible to arrive at any firm conclusions about the selenium content of lakes and rivers. ARSENIC, ANTIMONY, AND BISMUTH Arsenic has been determined in a number of lake and river waters, and some of the data are presented in table 87. The very high figures for New Zealand are from a limited area of hydrothermal activity where the element is unusually abundant, and are not to be taken as representative of the hydrosphere generally. It is possibile that the Saale figures have been increased by industrial pollution and the content of the waters in Portugal, where pollution is less likely, is much lower. Only one water of the six described in table 86 contained Table 87. — Arsenic content of lake and river waters Locality Southern Cordoba, Argentina Sea of Azov Caspian Sea Waiotapu River. New Zealand — Surface seepage water, Waiotapu Valley. Pools, Waiotapu Valley Rio Zezere, Portugal Germany Saale at Goschwitz, Germany mean of 12 monthly samples: Dissolved In suspension Saale at various places, range: Dissolved In suspension Biwa-Ko, Japan 516 California waters with less than 2,000 ppm total dissolved solids: Range Mean 20 California waters with more than 2,000 ppm total dissolved solids: Range Mean Arsenic (ppb) 40-1, 600 1-15 3-12 2, 400-4, 900 g 15, 000 £530 1 2-3 6.9 2.4 3. 5-16. 1 .3-6 .66-3.26 0-100 .4 0-2,000 225 Author Paraje (1950). Fedosov (1940). Do. Grimmett and Mcintosh (1939). Do. Do. See table 29. von Bulov and Otto (1931), quoted in Hutchinson (1957). Heide and Moenke (1956). Do. Do. Do. Sugawara, Naito, and Yamada (1956). California Dept. sources (1957). Do. Do. Do. Water Re- G46 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY an amount of arsenic detectable with a method sensitive to 1 ppb. Sugawara, Tanaka, and Kanamori (1956) feel that the older methods for arsenic were unreliable, being sub- ject to contamination, particularly from glassware, and it is possible that the development of more accurate methods will show the present figures to be too high. For the time being, however, it seems that arsenic con- centrations of several parts per billion are to be expected in ordinary dilute waters, and that concentrations of 1 ppm or more may be encountered in some concentrated waters or in hydrothermal areas. Antimony contents of as much as 40 ppb were found by Braidech and Emery (1935) in their spectrographic examination of United States water supplies. This seems rather high, and may reflect contamination from the pipes used to cany the water to the points where samples were taken for analysis. If such a quantity of antimony is actually to be foimd in natural waters, it should be of some biogeochemical importance, and the subject might repay further investigation. Grazhdan (1957) lists bismuth among the elements detected in several mineral waters of Turkmenistan. There do not appear to be any quantitative data for this element. TEDS RARE GASES Of the rare gases only argon has been investigated seriously in lake or river water. Sugawara and Tochikubo (1955) provide data for the argon content of five water samples from three lakes in Japan, and these are presented in table 88. The authors attribute the supersaturation of hypolimnetic water to heating of the deep water in situ without mixing. This sugges- tion has been rejected by Hutchinson (1957), who has, however, no alternative explanation to offer. If there is a substantial ground-water flow into the lakes, they may receive their excess argon in this way, for Sugawara and Tochikubo found that ground waters were fre- quently supersaturated, apparently as a result of bubbles of air being carried in the ground water to a depth at which there is appreciable solution, but such massive ground-water flow seems even less likely than heating in situ. The question is relevant to the prob- lems of gas exchange in the swim bladders of deep- water fishes and should be investigated in a variety of lakes. Apparently Oana (1957) did not find appre- ciable supersaturation. In river waters the argon con- centration is presumably close to saturation at atmos- pheric pressure, except in very torrential streams where it might approach saturation at the ambient pressure. There appears to be some further information about the rare gases in a paper by Dzens-Litovskii (1939), but the abstract available states only that the gases coming off the Sultan-Sanzhar Lake are 5.7 percent methane, 91.8 percent nitrogen and rare gases, and 1.023 percent krypton, xenon, and heavy gases. Table 88. — Argon content of lake water [After Sugawara and Toehikuko (1955)] Lake Altitude (m) Depth Cm) Temper- ature (°C) Ar (cc/1) Percent sat- uration Ar O Kizaki-ko, Kitaazumi, Nagano 760 t ° I 28 1 14.5 26 6.4 23.5 26.6 9.4 0.25 .42 .29 .26 .41 95 106 96 100 130 99.8 Kagamigaike Pond on cam- pus at Nagoya University, 7.27 95 Nakatasuna-ko, Kitaazurui, 800 108.8 With the current ready availability of gas frac- tometers and mass spectrographs it should be relatively easy to make substantial additions to current knowledge of the rare gases in water. GALLIUM Gallium has been recorded once from lake water, by Hutchinson (1944) who concluded from a spectro- graphic analysis that between 0.1 and 1 ppb was present in the water of Linsley Pond. GOLD Hydrochemical prospecting has occasionally been used in an effort to detect commercial deposits of gold, but apparently not with very great success, Kro- pachev (1935) says that it is useless to seek gold in regions where the waters contain less than 0.06 ppb of the element. Konovalov (1941) says that the gold content of river water is variable and is a poor indicator of the gold content of rocks. Additional information on the gold content of water is apparently given by Zverev, Levchenko, and Miller (1947), but it has not been possible to locate this paper or an informative abstract of it. MERCURY Mercury appears to have been determined in river water only by Heide, Lerz, and Bohm (1957), who found that the Saale at Goscwitz had an annual mean con- centration of 0.066 ppb in solution and an additional 0.021 ppb in the suspended form. Other stations on the same river had corresponding contents ranging from 0.035 to 0.145 ppb and from 0.004 to 0.046 ppb. The ratio of mercury to lead in river water was very similar to that in igneous and sedimentary rocks and in mollusk shells, but in sea water mercury was relatively about 10 times as abundant, whereas, rainwater, with 0.0002 ppb of mercury, had no detectable lead. Ap- parently mercury, because of its volatility, cycles quite readily through the atmosphere. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G47 CADMIUM Cadmium appears to have been detected in river or lake water only once, by Maliuga (1941), who detected between 9.66 and SO. 5 ppb in water of the Urov River. This seems rather high, and the mean cadmium content of lakes and rivers is probably below Maliuga's mimi- nnun figure. COPPER Copper is removed very easily from solution in natural waters (Murata, 1952; Kimura, Fujiwara, and Nagashima, 1951) both chemically, by precipitation as the carbonate, and by sorption reactions with the sus- pended material or even the walls of the container used to collect the water sample (Kauranne, 1955). Unless care is given to sampling and filtration procedures, it may be difficult to interpret the results of an investi- gation of the copper content of lake or river water. Riley (1939), studying the copper-cycle in the relatively copper-rich water of lakes in Connecticut, and Heide and Singer (1954), working on the Saale Eiver, have provided some information about the various fractions Table 89. — Copper content of lakes and rivers Locality Linsley Pond, Conn.: Cu ion range Sestonic Cu, range Organic Cu, range Total Cu, range Total Cu, mean Lake Quonnapaug, Conn.: Cu ion, range Sestonic Cu, range Organic Cu, range Total Cu, range Total Cu, mean Lake Quassapaug, Conn.: Cu ion, range Sestonic Cu, range Organic Cu, range Total Cu, range Total Cu, mean 440 Maine lakes: Range Mean One water, Japan, over a 2-year period: Range Mean Clear waters, Japan United States water supplies 69 Norwegian streams and springs: Range Mean Several rivers remote from indus- trial contamination, England. Lake Windermere, England.. Brown-water tarns, Westmorland, England. Pang-gong Tso, Tibet Saale River at Gbschwitz, mean of 12 monthly analyses: Dissolved Suspended Total _ _ , Saale River at 7 sampling stations: Dissolved, range Suspended, range. Total, range 536 California waters: Range Mean Rivers of the U.S.S.R.: mean Cu (ppb) 5-66 0-163 0-187 11-383 53 4-99 0-196 0-109 9-370 40.8 4-28 0-76 0-117 10-203 40.1 0. 07-140 10.38 0. 2-1. 3 .6 <1 0-3, 200 180 0-36 15 14-17 10 12 3 15 8-29 0. 5-2. 7 8. 5-29. 9 0-60 6 10.5 Author Riley (1939). Do. Do. Do. Riley in Hutchinson (1957, p. 812). Rilev (1939). Do. Do. Do. Riley in Hutchinson (1967, p. 812). Rilev (1939). Do. Do. Do. Riley in Hutchinson (1957, p. 812). Kleinkopf (1955). Do. Morita (1950). Do. Sugawara, Oana, and Morita (1948). Braidech and Emery (1935). Vogt and Rosenquist (1942). Do. Atkins (1933). Riley in Hutchinson (1957, p. 811.) Do. Do. Heide and Singer (1954). Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Calif. Dept. Water Resources (1957). Konovalov (1959). of copper present in natural waters; their results are summarized in table 89. There is reason to believe that much of Riley's organic fraction was not actually associated with dissolved organic compounds: a large part of it was removable by ultrafiltration and so was associated with colloidal material. Much of the col- loidal material in waters of this sort is inorganic rather than organic. Heide and Singer's high figure of 29 ppb reflects industrial contamination. In general the dissolved and suspended copper content of the Saale increases downstream. The copper content of waters in Japan is not as low as it may appear from the results presented in table 75. These results are probably comparable with the copper ion figures of Riley. Turbid waters in Japan contain much more copper. Thirty-five river waters sampled by the International Association of Hydrology in North America and Norway had a mean copper content of 8.7 ppb (W. H. Durum, written communication, 1960). Many data are now being provided by dithizone testing of waters in geochemical prospecting programs. These data are, for the most part, of limited geo- chemical usefulness because little attention is paid to filtration, copper is not always separated from other heavy metals giving a similar result, and the waters sampled tend to be from copper-rich areas and to contain more total copper than average lake and river water. Taking all the data into account, it is likely that the mean copper content of ordinary fresh waters is about 10 ppb. In addition to the information presented in table 75, additional copper analyses of lake and river waters may be found in tables 19, 47, and 65 of the general section of this report, in Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), and in Maliuga, (1945). Data for groups of heavy metals, among which copper is probably the most important, may be found in Boyle, Illsley, and Green (1955); Boyle, and others (1958); and Boyle, Pekar, and and Patterson (1956). COBALT AND NICKEL, There appear to be only four investigations of cobalt in the water of lakes and rivers. The results of Maliuga (1945, 1946) suggest a cobalt content two orders of magnitude greater than that reported by Benoit (1956). The failure of Braidech and Emery (1935) to find more than a trace of cobalt, and that only in 3 waters out of 24, supports the findings of Benoit. It is known, however, that the cobalt con- tent of soils varies enough to make cobalt deficiency a serious problem, at least to ruminants, and it is possible that Maliuga and Benoit have been measuring genuine G48 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY differences in the cobalt contents of their separate regions. Most major rivers of North America (Durum, written communication, 1960) usuaUy contain no detectable cobalt, but a few samples contain 5 or more ppb. The mean content for 30 samples is 0.89 ppb. For nickel there are more data, and some of these, together with a summary of the information about cobalt, are presented in table 90. Hutchinson (1957, p. 824-825) has suggested that the single high value of Braidech and Emery is due to contamination and that the normal range of nickel content is from to 10 ppb with a mean of 5 ppb. Taking the new data for rivers of North America into account, it is likely that the global mean is close to 10 ppb. Passamaneck's analysis of water from a mining district shows that some waters may have a nickel content that is an order of magnitude higher. Table 90. — Cobalt and nickel content c / lakes and rivers Locality Co (ppb) Ni (ppb) Author Traces in 3 waters. 0. 02-0. 04 . 02-. 04 . 05- 105 2 0-300 United States, 24 water sup- plies. Linsley Pond, Conn.: (1935). Do. Benoit (1956). allsestonic). Hypolimnion: Do. Total Do. 440 Maine lakes: 0. 01-7 .208 5 13-19 1. 1-75 100 1.5 .3 1.6 9 1.7 1.2 1. 7-12 11.7 Kleinkopf (1955). Do. 2.3 5. 7-6. 6 . 33-19 Maliuga (1946). 2 small lakes near Moscow 21 lakes and rivers, U.S.S.R.. Do. Maliuga (1945). mine district, Ontario. Lake Washington, Wash.: (1956). Do. Hoh River, Wash.: Do. Do. Sol Due River, Wash.: Do. Do. Pacal (1955). sphere. Major rivers of North America. .89 W. H. Durum (written communication, 1960). SILVER Both Braidech and Emery (1935) and Kleinkopf (1955, 1960) found silver in every water sample they examined for its presence. The first of these investi- gations dealt with 24 water supplies in the United States. It is possible that some of the silver was due to contamination, although water from Lake Michigan, which was tested before treatment of any kind, con- tained 20 ppb of the element, a little below the mean of 28 ppb for all of the waters examined. The range was 10-200 ppb, and the ratio of silver to copper was about 300 times as great as that of the accessible lithosphere (Hutchinson, 1957, p. 828). Kleinkopf found much lower figures, his range being 0.01-3.50 ppb for 440 waters with a mean of 0.094. His Ag/Cu ratio was only about 10 times as great as that of the lithosphere and seems less anomalous, the chemical shmlarity of the two elements being great enough to suggest that they should behave similarly in the hydrosphere. Thirty-one samples of river water col- lected by the International Association of Hydrology in North America and Norway contained as much as 1.0 ppb silver with a mean of 0.16 (W. H. Durum, written communication, 1960). The samples had a Ag/Cu ratio similar to those of Kleinkopf. zinc Zinc contents approaching 1 ppm in lakes and rivers have been reported. Kemmerer, Bovard, and Boorman (1923) found 650 ppb in Bear Lake, Idaho; Braidech and Emery (1935) found amounts between 200 and 300 ppb in water from Lake Michigan; and 200 ppb of zinc has been found in the Orogodo River, Nigeria (table 65). Most waters, however, contain much less than this. Braidech and Emery's figures ranged from the high figure for Lake Michigan down to 5 ppb. Kleinkopf (1955, 1960) found between 0.25 and 34.0 ppb in 440 lake waters of Maine, with a mean of 2.50 ppb. Morita (1950) found a variation of between 0.2 and 1.3 with a mean of 0.6 ppb in one water from Japan over a period of 2 years, and a somewhat wider range of figures in a series of lakes — those from mountains ranged from 1.3 to 5 ppb, whereas those from lowlands ranged from 5.6 to 18 ppb. Katanuma-ko, with its very acid water, contained 79 ppb of zinc. Sugihara (table 47) found between 10 and 56 ppb in six river and irrigation waters in Japan with a mean of 36 ppb. Five hundred and thirty-six waters from California (Calif. Dept. Water Resources, 1957) contained to 320 ppb with a mean of 6.7, and the river waters of the U.S.S.R. average 45 ppb (Konovalov, 1959). The mean content of ordinary lake and river water appears to be about 10 ppb of total zinc. There is little direct evidence concerning the state of zinc in natural waters. Murata (1952) and Kimura, Fujiwara, and Nagashi (1951) found it to be less easily lost from solution in natural waters than copper, but the only study in which an attempt was made to separate dissolved from particulate forms of the element appears to be that of Heide and Singer (1954), who found that the Saale at Goschwitz contained, over a period of 12 months, an average of 178 ppb dissolved zinc and 47 ppb in suspen- sion. Excluding a single figure of 3,500 ppb dissolved zinc which was the direct result of industrial pollution, they found a range from 54 to 205 ppb dissolved and 8 to 23 ppb particulate zinc for seven stations on the Saale. Zinc was strongly adsorbed by the sediment and precipitated from the river water in this way. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES (14!) Some further information about the zinc content of waters maj 7 be obtained from the geochemical prospect- ing papers of Kauranne and of Boyle and his co-workers to which reference already has been made. TITANIUM By far the largest body of information about the titanium content of lakes and rivers is that provided by Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), who found between 0.05 and 27.5 ppb in 440 lake waters of Maine with a mean value of 1.60 ppb. Braidech and Emery (1935) found at least a trace in half of the public water supplies thej T investigated. Untreated water from Lake Michigan, with a content of 70 ppb contained the most, but samples from five other localities contained 20 ppb. Hutchinson (1941) found 50 ppb of titanium in hy- polimnetic water from Linsley Pond. Thirty-three samples from major rivers of North America had a mean titanium content of 13.2 ppb (W. H. Durum, written communication, 1960). Nothing is known about the state of the titanium measured by any of these investigators, and it is at least possible that the titanium was all in suspension. ZIRCONIUM Zirconium appears to have been detected in lake waters only by Kleinkopf (1955, 1960) who found it to be uniformly present in 440 lake waters of Maine, with a range from 0.05 to 22.5 ppb and a mean of 2.61 ppb. TIN The tin content of waters has been studied by Braidech and Emery (1935), who found contents as high as 100 ppb with a mean of 17 ppb in 24 water samples. Water from Lake Michigan, the only un- treated surface water included in their study, contained 40 ppb. Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), working with 419 lake waters of Maine, found much less tin. The range in the tin content in the lake waters of Maine was only as high as 2.50 ppb and the mean was 0.038 ppb. These figures are so discordant as to suggest analytical error in one of the investigations. LEAD The most valuable set of data for the lead content of lake and river water is that of Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), who found between 0.03 and 115.0 ppb of the element in 440 lakes of Maine. The mean was 2.30. Thirty- three samples of water from major rivers in North America contained an average of 6.6 ppb of lead (W.H. Durum, written communication, 1960). Dataof Braidech and Emery (1935) are open to question because of possible contamination from the pipes of the water systems from which they obtained their samples, but their finding of 2 ppb in water from Lake Michigan is concordant with the results of Kleinkopf, although their mean of 26 ppb for the entire series of 24 water supplies seems suspiciously high. Eighteen of 536 waters of California (Calif. Dept. Water Resources, 1957) contained between 5 and 20 ppb of detectable lead. The mean for the entire series was 0.3 ppb. Lead was among the heavy metals studied by Boyle and his co-workers in the papers to which reference has already been made. Newton (1944) has presented some additional data on the high lead content of rivers polluted by mine wastes. From the data available it seems likely that the global mean lead content for lakes and rivers lies be- tween 1 and 10 ppb. VANADIUM The first analysis of vanadium in lake or river water appears to be that of Braidech and Emery (1935) who found 20 ppb in water from Lake Michigan and failed to detect it in any other of the 24 waters they examined. Bertrand (1950), reviewing the biogeochemistry of the element, was able to cite several analyses for springs but none for lakes and rivers. Paraje (1950), studying 28 water supplies in the southern part of Cordoba, Argentina, found as much as 1,400 ppb with a mean of 320 ppb, but he did not specify the sources of the water supplies and it is likely that most, if not all, were ground waters. In addition, the region is geochemically unusual, being extremely arid and characterized especially by high arsenic concentrations, and is unlikely to have a vanadium content that is typical of ordinary lake and river waters. The most important study of vanadium in lakes and rivers is that of Sugawara, Naito, and Yamada (1956). They found a range from 0.1 to 1.0 ppb with a mean of 0.91 in 21 samples of river water. SLx samples of rain and snow water gave a range between 0.33 and 2.8 with a mean of 1.10 ppb but some of this meteoric vanadium appeared to be associated with soot from the industrial combustion of coal and petroleum, although it was filterable. Lake sediment also was enriched in vana- dium, though apparently not biologically, for the plankton did not accumulate it. Kleinkopf (1955, 1960) found vanadium contents as high as 2.1 ppb and a mean content of 0.112 ppb in 440 lake waters of Maine. This is in reasonable agree- ment with the results from Japan, and taken all to- gether, the evidence suggests that the vanadium con- tent of ordinary lake and river waters is somewhat less than 1 ppb. The element is widely and rather uni- formly dispersed. CHROMIUM Braidech and Emery (1935) detected chromium in 22 of the 24 water supplies they studied. The amount ranged as high as 40 ppb with a mean of 5 ppb. Water from Lake Michigan contained 2 ppb. Chromium, G50 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY was also among the elements studied by Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), who found amounts as high as 8 ppb in 440 lake waters from Maine. The mean was 0.177, somewhat lower than that of Braidech and Emery. Five hundred and thirty-six waters of California (Calif. Dept. Water Eesources, 1957) contained as much as 20 ppb with a mean of 0.3. Thirty-four samples from major rivers of North America contained as much as 84 ppb chromium with the rather high mean of 10.8 ppb (W. H. Durum, written communica- tion, 1960). With this much information one can only say that the mean chromium content of ordinary lake and river waters probably lies between 0.1 and 10 ppb, but may be a little higher. MOLYBDENUM The first measurements of the molybdenum content of lake or river waters appear to be those of Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), who found figures of as much as 2.50 ppb in 419 lake waters from Maine. The mean of his analyses was 0.023 ppb. Geidorov and Efendiev (1958) found a mean content of 6.7 ppb in river waters of the Istisu and Bagyrasakh areas, Azerbaidzhan, which are rich in the element. Braidech and Emery (1935) found traces of molybdenum in some of their waters, but Novokhatskii and Kalinin (1939) were not able to detect its presence in the salt lakes of Kazakhstan. In a recent survey of major rivers of North America figures up to 6.9 ppb were found. The mean for 29 samples was 0.84 ppm, but in more than half of these it was not possible to demonstrate the existence of the element (W. H. Durum, written communication, 1960). MANGANESE Very little is known about the state of manganese in lake and river waters. Hutchinson (1957), in his account of the limnological behavior of the element, was forced to reason by analogy with its known be- havior in soils, taking into account redox conditions prevailing in lakes. Kleinkopf (1955, 1960), found a range from 0.02 to 87.5 ppb of manganese in 440 lake waters from Maine. The mean was 3.8 ppb. After a few investigations of variations with depth which did not yield positive results, he investigated only surface waters, but other workers have demonstrated very pronounced changes in manganese concentration with depths in stratified lakes. The most common situation appears to be one in which the manganese content is high in the reduced bottom water; it reaches high concentrations at a somewhat shallower depth than iron, presumably be- cause manganous ion is released from the bottom at a slightly higher redox potential than ferrous iron (Hutchinson, 1957, p. 809). A less common situation occurs in some lakes, notably Ranu Klindungan in Java, which has a very pronounced peak in the manga- nese curve just below the therm ocline with lower concentrations in the deep hypolhnnion and a much lower content in the surface water. Ruttner (1930) believed that a manganiferous spring was involved in the case of Ranu Klindungan, but in other lakes, such as Schleinsee, Germany, a similar though less pro- nounced manganese curve appears to be generated by the accumulation of manganese in the unmixed layers just below the level where oxygen is present in amounts sufficient to precipitate manganous ion from solution ^Hutchinson, 1957, p. 810). Ohle (1934) studying lakes in North Germany found a total manganese content between less than 5 and as much as 200 ppb. The mean was 25 ppb. One lake, Trammersee, had a variation in manganese throughout a single year that covered almost the entire range, from less than 5 ppb to 133 ppb. Juday, Birge, and Meloche (1938) found comparable amounts, 3 to 23 ppb in the surface waters of 8 Wisconsin lakes. The deep water of one lake contained 1200 ppb. Uniformly high manganese contents have been recorded for some waters — for example, 50 to 250 (mean of 140 ppb) for Linsley Pond (Hutchinson, 1957, p. 803-804) and 80 to 120 ppb for the Mississippi River at Fairport, Iowa (Wiebe, 1930). The mean for the rivers of the U.S.S.R. is 11.9 ppb (Konovalov, 1959), but the global average is probably somewhat higher. Lohammar (1938) has provided a very substantial body of information on the manganese content of waters of Sweden. There seems to be a slight difference in the waters of northern and southern Sweden in this respect. In north Sweden the range was > 10—460 ppb, with a mean of 33 ppb, and in south Sweden >10-S50 ppb, with a mean of 44 ppb. Waters from northern Sweden have a much higher iron content than those from southern Sweden, and there seems very little doubt that the Fe/Mn ratio is significantly higher for the northern (30) than for the southern (5) waters. Additional data for manganese may be found in papers by Yoshimura (1931a, b), Ruttner (1937), Einsele (1937, 1940), Yatsula (1959), and Harvey (1949) as well as in tables 9, 12, 13, 25-27, 29, 35, 47, 50, 54, 66, 68, 71, and 72 of the general section of this report. uranium: Because of its radioactivity uranium has been the subject of a number of hydrochemical investigations. Some of the results are summarized in table 91. The variation in the uranium content of natural waters is so great that it would be necessary to have information from all the major river systems in order to draw up a reliable mean figure. A number of important rivers CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G51 seem to contain about 0.1 ppb, but it would not take many like the Danube to raise the world average to Koczy's (1954) estimate of 1 ppb, which seems to be a reasonable figure. Table 91. — Uranium content of lakes and rivers Locality Allegheny River, Pa Allegheny River, Pa Ohio River, Pa Chartiers Creek Monongahela River, Pa Great Salt Lake, Utah Hudson River, N.Y St. Lawrence River Mississippi River.. Various United States rivers: Dissolved Total Rivers, North America, range.. Rivers, world average Rivers, central Europe Danube at Vienna Surface waters, Wisconsin, mi nois, and Texas. Lake Mendota, Wis Uranium (ppb) 50 <25 5 <2.5 <25 <2. 5 .022 .016 .040 .6 . 016-. 040 47 . 13-3. 5 .4 Author Lynch, f?iLowderand Solon (1956). Do. Do. Do. Do. Kohman and Saito (1954). Ronaand Urry (1952). Do. Do. Adams, in Holland and Kulp (1954). Do. Kohman and Saito (1954). Koczy (1954). Hoflman (1942). Do. Jndson and Osmond (1955). Do. RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES The uranium and radium content of lakes and rivers has been dealt with previously (see p. 45, 50). The other elements in the radium and thorium series which have been investigated are thorium, for which Koczy (1954) gives a figure of 0.02 ppb, and radon, for which Jacobi (1949) gives a range from 1.4 XIO -12 to 2.1 XIO" 12 ppb. Protactinium-231, which has the next longest half-life, does not seem to have been detected; the same is true of the elements of the actinium series, which are very scarce. Lowder and Solon (1956, p. 13) have summarized the information about naturally occurring radioisotopes other than those of the series discussed above. Their table, abbreviated to those elements which may be reasonably expected to be present in measurable amounts in lake and river waters, is reproduced in table 92. Isotopic compositions are not, of course, constant, but will depend on the history of the material analyzed. Marguez and Costa (1955) have detected naturally produced phosphorus-32 and Goel and others (1959) have measured phosphorus-32, phosphorus-33, beryl- lium-17, and sulfur-35 in rain water, so these isotopes probably are to be expected in some lake and river waters also. Data on the tritium content of lakes and rivers have already been presented in table 3. Some additional information on radioactivity can be found in Hess (1943 and Love (1951). STABLE ISOTOPES Apart from hydrogen and oxygen, isotopic ratios are seldom computed for lakes and rivers. It is evident that most, and probably all, chemical elements in the hydrosphere may be expected to show variations in isotopic proportions. Thode, Wanless, and Wallough Table 92. — Some singly occurring natural radioisotopes of elements that are chemically delectable in lakes or rivers Isotope Relative isotopic abundance (percent) Half-life (years) Author C'< io-» .0119 .25 27.85 42.75 5,400 1.3 X 10' >10» 6.1 X 10'°.... Very long... 1.72 X 10'.... Anderson and Llbby (1951). K*> Rankama (1954). Vs»(?) Do. Rb»- Sb>»(?)_ !«•(?) Fllnta and Ecklund (1954). Rankama (1954). Hollander, Perlman, and Seaborg (1953). (1954) have demonstrated bacterial fractionation of sulfur isotopes. Such fractionation must produce im- portant hetereogenities in the isotopic composition of sulfur, especially in deep meromictic lakes. To take another example from the hydrosphere, Cameron (1953) has reported significant variations in the Br 79 /Br 81 ratio of a number of water samples from various sources. ORGANIC MATTER The organic content of lake and river waters has been reviewed recently by Hutchinson (1957) and by Vallentyne (1957). Most of what follows is taken from their reviews. There does not appear to be any standard method for the determination of the total dissolved-organic content of lake waters, although Hutchinson suggests that loss on ignition of a vacuum-dried sample of filtered water with suitable corrections for loss of chloride and of carbon dioxide from alkaline earth carbonates would provide reasonably accurate figures. The prevalent methods of wet oxidation yield values of the total dissolved-organic material that are about 60 percent too low, to judge from one case that has been critically examined (Hutchinson, 1957, p. 879). Birge and Juday (1934) have provided data on the proximate composition of the dissolved organic matter of lake waters from Wisconsin, and have found a steady increase in the C/N ratio with increasing total and dissolved organic carbon content. Some of their data are summarized in table 93. From a theoretical analysis of Birge and Juday's results, Hutchinson concluded that the dissolved organic matter in lake waters consists of two fractions, an autochthonous fraction containing about 24 percent crude protein with a C/N ratio of about 12:1, and an allochthonous fraction containing about 6 percent crude protein, with a C/N ratio of 45-50:1. Vallentyne (1957) believes that there is substantial evidence for the presence of biotin, glucose, sucrose, thiamin, niacin, and vitamin B 12 dissolved in lake water. In hydrolyzates of dissolved organic matter the amino acids a-alanine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, tryptophane, and tyrosine have been G52 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Table 93. — Proximate composition of dissolved organic matter from Wisconsin lake waters containing varying amounts of total organic carbon [Data of Birge and Juday (1934)] Carbon Organic Dissolved Crude Ether Carbo- content seston organic protein extract hydrate C/N (mg per 1) (mg per 1) matter (mg per 1) (percent) (percent) (percent) ratio 1.0-1.9 0.62 3.09 24.3 2.3 73.6 12.2 5. 0-5. 9 1.27 10.33 19.4 1.3 79 15.1 10.0-10.9 1.S9 20.48 14.4 .4 85.2 20.1 15.0-15.9 2.32 31.30 12.9 .2 86.9 22.4 20. 0-25. 9 2.22 48.12 9.9 .2 89.9 29 identified. An early report by Peterson, Fred, and Domogalla (1925) of the presence of free amino acids in lake waters has never been confirmed, although at- tempts have been made to do so. The particulate matter of lakes and rivers may be expected to contain all the organic chemicals that are contained in the plants and animals that form a large part of the undissolved organic content of water. Vallentyne lists several dozen molecular species that have actually been identified in the suspended matter or its hydrolyzate. An even larger number of com- pounds have been identified in sediments. A very important advance has been made by Shapiro (1957, 1958) who has found up to 5 mg per liter of yellow organic acid in lake water. This material consists of monocarboxylic hydroxy aliphatic organic acids of molecular weight approximately 450. The acids are apparently unsaturated and nonnitrogenous, and they are capable of keeping iron in a nonprecipi- tatable state at high pH. Lakes of widely different types appear to have a reasonably uniform complement of organic salts or complexes of these acids and the common inorganic ions. Extreme pH values or con- centrations of a single ion may modify the exact pat- tern. Although neither the acids nor their salts have been completely purified as yet, it appears that a very large part of the dissolved organic matter in lake waters may be in the form of a very small number of closely related compounds. These compounds are important as foods to at least some aquatic organisms. They are known to interact with calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and iron and appear to be involved with cobalt, manganese, copper, and zinc as well. Goryunova (1954) has found a large amount of poly- saccharide in the water of Lake Beloye, only a very small amount of which is starch. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adlercreutz, E., 1928, Uber das Vorkommen von Jod in ver- schiedenartigen Wassern in Finnland: Acta Medica Scan- dinavica, v. 69, p. 325-391. Aladjem, Raphael, 1926, Seasonal variation in salinity of Nile water in the Aswan Reservoir and at Rodah (Giza) : Min- istry of Agriculture, Egypt. 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Acta, v. 7, p. 129-150. 1956, On the chemical composition of some waters from the Moor House Nature Reserve: Jour. Ecology, v. 44, p. 375-382. 1957a, The chemical composition of lake waters in Halifax County, Nova Scotia: Limnology and Oceanography, v. 2, p. 12-21. 1957b, The chemical composition of some natural waters in the Cairn Gorm-Strath Spey district of Scotland: Limnology and Oceanography, v. 2, p. 143-154. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G55 Gorham, Eville, 1957c, The chemical composition of some waters from lowland lakes in Shropshire, England: Tell us, v. 9, p. 174-179. 1957d, The chemical composition of some western Irish fresh waters: Royal Irish Acad. Proc, sec. B, v. 58, p. 237-243. 1957e, The ionic composition of some lowland lake waters from Cheshire, England: Limnology and Oceanography v. 2, p. 22-27. 195S, The influence and importance of daily weather condi- tions on the supply of chloride, sulphate and other ions to fresh waters from atmospheric precipitation: Royal Soc. [London] Philos. Trans., B, v. 241, p. 147-178. Goryunova, S. V., 1954, Characterization of dissolved organic substances in water of Lake Beloe: Inst. Mikro-biol., Akad. Nauk SSSR Trudy, v. 3, p. 185-193. Grazhdan, P. E., 1957, Geochemical nature of the waters of the region near Balkhansk in Southwestern Turkmenistan: Akad. Nauk Turkmen. SSR Izvt., 1957, no. 2, p. 50-55 (in Russian). Grimmett, R. E. R., and Mcintosh, I. G., 1939, Occurrence of arsenic in soils and waters in the Waiotapu Valley and its relation to stock health: New Zealand Jour. Sci. and Tech- nology, v. 21A, p. 137-145. Grushko, Y. M., and Shipitsyn, S. A., 1948, Toxic substances in the drinking waters of Irkutsk from spectral analyses: Gigiena i Sanit., v. 13, p. 4-11 (in Russian). Grushvitskii, V. E., 1938, Problems and investigations of the Crimean salt-bearing lakes: Inst. Halurgii Byull., v. 2, p. 68-89. Hanya, Takahisa, 1953a, Correlation between the chemical nature of natural water and geological nature of the environment I: Chem. Soc. Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 74, p. 365-367 (in Japanese). 1953b, Frequency of concentration of chemical elements in the fresh waters of Japan and the correlation between them: Chem. Soc. Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 74, p. 322-325 (in Japanese). Han} T a, Takahisa, and Sugawara, Ken, 1950, Geochemical studies on Sugashima Island. IV. Origin of the chemical constit- uents in the fluvial waters and correlation between them: Chem. Soc Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 71, p. 389-392 (in Japanese). Harrison, A. D., and Elsworth, J. F., 1958, Hydrobiological studies on the Great Berg River, Western Cape Province. Part 1, General description, chemical studies and main features of the flora and fauna: Royal Soc South Africa Trans., v. 35, p. 125-226. Harvey, H. W., 1949, On manganese in sea and fresh waters: Marine Biol. Assoc. United Kingdom Jour., v. 28, p. 155-163. Hastings, W. W., and Rowley, J. H., 1946, Chemical composition of Texas surface waters, 1938-45: Texas Board Water Engineers, 232 p. Heide, F., 1952, Die Geochemie der Susswiisser: Chemie Erde, v. 16, p. 1-21. Heide, F., and Kaeding, J., 1954, Der Halogengehalt des Saale- wassers: Naturwissenschaften, v. 41, p. 256-257. Heide, F., Lerz, H. and Bohm, G., 1957, Gehalt des Saalewassers an Blei und Quecksilbur: Naturwissenschaften, v. 44, p. 441-442. Heide, F., and Moenke, H., 1956, Der Arsengehalt des Saale- wassers: Naturwissenschaften, v. 43, p. 80-81. Heide, F., and Singer, E., 1954, Der Gehalt des Saalewassers an Kupfer und Zink: Naturwissenschaften, v. 41, p. 498-499. Hembree, C. II., Colby, B. R., Swenson, H. A., and Davis, J. R., 1952, Sedimental and chemical quality of water in the Powder River drainage basin, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ 170, 92 p. Hershey, H. G., 1955, Quality of surface waters of Iowa, 1886- 1954: Iowa Geol. Survey Water-Supply Bull. 5, 351 p. Hess, V. F., 1943, On the radon content of the atmosphere and the radium content of river water: Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmos. Elec, v. 408, p. 203. Hoffmann, J., 1942, Uber in Susswassern geloste und von Sedi- menten mitgerissene Uranmengen: Chemie Erde, v. 14, p. 239-252. Holland, H. D., and Kulp, J. L., 1954, The transport and de- position of uranium, ionium, and radium in rivers, oceans and ocean sediments: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 5, p. 197-213. Hollander, J. M., Perlman, I., and Seaborg, G. T., 1953, Table of isotopes: Revs. Modern Physics, v. 25, p. 469-651. Horr, C. A., 1959, A survey of analytical methods for the deter- mination of strontium in natural waters: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1496-A, 18 p. Howard, C. S., 1948, Quality of water in the Northwest: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 29, p. 379-383. Howard, C. S., and Love, S. K., 1945, Quality of surface waters of the United States, 1943, with a summary of analyses of streams in Colorado River, Pecos River, and Rio Grande basins, 1925-1943: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 970, 180 p. Hughes, L. S., and Jones, Wanda, 1961, Chemical composition of Texas surface waters, 1958: Texas Board Water Engineers Bull. 6104, 82. p. Hundeshagen, Franz, 1909, Analyse einiger ostafrikanischer Wasser: Zeitschr. offentliche Chemie, v. 15, p. 201-205. Hursh, John B., 1954, Radium content of public water supplies: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 46, p. 43-54. 1957, Natural occurrence of radium in man and in waters and in food: British Jour. Radiology, Supp., v. 7, p. 45-53. Hutchinson, G. E., 1937, Limnological studies in Indian Tibet: Internat. Rev. der gesamten Hydrobiol. und Hydrog., v. 35, p. 134-175. 1941, Limnological studies in Connecticut. IV. The mechanism of intermediary metabolism in stratified lakes: Ecol. Mon., no. 11, p. 20-60. 1944, Limnological studies in Connecticut. VII. A critical examination of the supposed relationship between phytoplankton periodicity and chemical changes in lake waters: Ecology, v. 25, p. 3-26. 1957, A treatise on limnology, v. 1. Geography, physics, and chemistry: New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1015 p. Hutchinson, G. E., Pickford, G. E., and Schuurman, J. F. M., 1932, A contribution to the hydrobiology of pans and other inland waters of South Africa: Archiv Hydrobiol., v. 24, p. 1-154. Hutton, J. T., and Leslie, T. 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Chem. Soc. Japan Jour., Pure Chem Sec, v. 74, p. 1003-1009 (in Japanese). Jacobi, R. B., 1949, The determination of radon and radium in water: Chem. Soc London Jour., Supp., 1949, p. 314. Jarchovsky, I., and Pacal, Z., 1954, Iodine in waters of the Presov region: Ustred. ustav. Geol. VSstnik, v. 29, p. 256-258. Juday, C, Birge, E. A., and Meloche, V. W., 1938, Mineral content of the lake waters of northeastern Wisconsin: Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts Letters Trans., v. 31, p. 223-276. Judson, S., and Osmond, J. K., 1955, Radioactivity in ground and surface water: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 253, p. 104-116. Kapustka, S. F., 1957, Chemical and physical character of surface waters of Virginia, 1954-1956: Virginia Dept. Conserv. and Devel., Div. of Water Resources Bull. no. 22, 161 p. Karger, M. I., and Chapyzhnikov, A. V., 1944, Iodine content of (various) waters: Lab. Biogeokhim. Akad. Nauk SSSR Trudy, v. 7, p. 51-54 (in Russian). Kauranne, L. K., 1955, Geochemical research in Norway: Geologi, v. 7. p. 14-15 (in Finnish). Kemmerer, G., Bovard, J. F., and Boorman, W. R., 1923, Northwestern lakes of the United States: biological and chemical studies with reference to possibilities in production of fish: U.S. Bur. Fisheries Bull., v. 39, p. 51-140. Kimura, Kenjiro, Fujiwara, Shizuo, and Nagashima, Kozo, 1951, Chemical prospecting in the Takara Mine district: Chem. Soc. Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 72, p. 434-438 (in Japanese). Kimura, Kenjiro, Noguchi, Kimio, Hanya, Takahisa, Torii, Tetsuy, and Urahawa, Norio, 1950, Chemical constituents of well waters and river waters in Manchuria: Chem. Soc Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 71, p. 263-266, 448-451 (in Japanese). Kleinkopf, M. D., 1955, Trace element exploration of Maine lake water: Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. University Microfilm Pub. 12, v. 447, 157 p. -1960, Spectrographic determination of trace elements in lake waters of northern Maine: Geol. Soc. 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B., 1953, Chemical character of surface waters of Kentucky, 1949-51: Kentucky Agr. Indus. Devel. Board, 143 p. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVERS AND LAKES G57 Lamar, W. L., and Schroeder, M. E., 1951, Chemical character of surface waters of Ohio, 1946-50: Ohio Dept. Nat. Resources, Div. of Water Bull., v. 23, 100 p. Lamar, W. L., and Whetstone, G. W., 1947, Chemical character of surface waters of Virginia, 1945-46: Virginia Conserv. Comm., Div. of Water Resources Power Bull. v. 8. Leverin, H. A., 1947, Industrial waters of Canada. Report on investigation, 1934 to 1943: Rept. Canada Dept. of Mines and Resources Bur. of Mines, no. 819, 109 p. Lewis, C, Campbell, J. D., Bickmore, D. P., and Cook, K. F., 1951, The Oxford Atlas: Oxford Univ. Press, v. 8, 90 p. Libby, W. F., 1955, Tritium in nature: Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 45, p. 301-314. Livingstone, D. A., Bryan, Kirk, Jr., and Leahy, R. 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Maldonado, Angel, and Guevara, Juan de Dios, 1950, Boron in the waters and soils of Peru: Agronomia (Peru), v. 16, p. 51-67 (in Spanish). Maliuga, D. P., 1941, Cadmium in organisms: Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. Comptes rendus, v. 31, p. 145-147. 1945, Content of copper, nickel, cobalt and other elements of the iron family in native waters: Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. Comptes rendus, p. 113-116. 1946, Geochemistry of disseminated nickel and cobalt in the biosphere: Lab. Biogeokhim. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Trudy, v. 8, p. 75-141 (in Russian). Maliuga, D. P., and Makarova, A. I., 1956, The content of microelements in several soils developed on ore deposits: Pochvovedenie, 1956, p. 50-53 (in Russian). Manoff, Isaac, 1939, Salty waters of the Sali River, their origin and effects. Bol. Estac. Expt. Agr. Tucuman, v. 29, 17 p. in Spanish). Marguez, L., and Costa, N. L., 1955, The formation of 8J P from atmospheric argon by cosmic rays: Nuovo Cimento, ser 10, p. 1038-1041. Mendelejev, J., 1935, Sur la density anormale des eaux des couches profondes du Lac Baikal: Acad. sci. U.R.S.S. Comptes rendus, v. 3, p. 105-108. Menzhinskaya, E. V., 1944, Distribution of iodine in the fresh waters of the Upper Snety Region and its correlation with occurrence of endemic goiter: Lab. Biogeokhim. Akad. Nauk SSSR Trudy, v. 7, p. 26-37 (in Russian). Miyadi, Denzaburo, 1939, Limnological study of Taiwan (Formosa): Archiv Hydrobiol., v. 35, p. 1-27. Moore, E. W., 1949, A summary of available data on quality of arctic waters: Natl. Research Council, Div. of Med. Sci., Rept. to Subcomm. on Water Supply of its Comm. on Sanitary Eng. and Environment, 14 p. 1950, Summary of additional data on Alaskan waters: Natl. Research Council, Div. of Med. Sci., Rept to Sub- comm. on Water Supply of its Comm. on Sanitary Eng. and Environment, 25 p. Morita, Yoshimi, 1950, Distribution of copper and zinc. III. Inland water: Chem. Soc. Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 71, p. 209-212 (in Japanese). Mortimer, C. H., 1941-42, The exchange of dissolved substances between mud and water in lakes: Jour. Ecology, v. 29, p. 280-329; v. 30, p. 147-201. Mose, J. R., and Exner, H., 1952, Untersuchungen iiber den Fluorgehalt steirischer Trinkwasser: Gas., Wasser, Warme (Wien)., v. 6, p. 124. Murata, Akira, 1952, Chemical prospecting in the northeastern district of Mount Zao, Miyagi Prefecture: Research Inst. Mineral Dressing Met. Tohoku Univ. Bull., v. 8, p. 73-76 (in Japanese). Murphey, B. F., 1941, Relative abundances of the oxygen isotopes: Phys. Rev., v. 59, p. 320. Murphy, J. J., 1955, Chemical character of surface waters of Oklahoma, 1952-53: Oklahoma Plan, and Resources Board Bull., Div. Water Resources, no. 11, 128 p. Muto, Satoru, 1956, Distribution of boron in natural waters: Chem. Soc. Japan Bull., v. 29, p. 532-536 (in English). Newton, Lily, 1944, Pollution of the rivers of West Wales by lead and zinc mine effluent: Ann. Appl. Biol., v. 31, p. 1-11. Nichols, M. Starr, and McNall, Dorothy R., 1957, Strontium content of Wisconsin municipal waters: Am. Water Works Assoc Jour., v. 49, p. 1493-1498. Nikolaev, V. I., and Segel, N. M., 1947, Seasonal changes in the concentrations of potassium, bromine, and boric acid in the salt lakes of the delta of the Volga: Gidrokhim. Materialy Akad. Nauk. SSSR, v. 13, p. 124-128 (in Russian, English summary) . Noguchi, Kimio, 1950, Chemical compositions of underground waters and river waters: Chem. Soc Japan Jour., Pure Chem. Sec, v. 71, p. 250-254 (in Japanese). Northcraft, Martin, and Westgarth, W. C, 1957, Water quality data inventory supplement: Oregon State Water Resources Board, Bull. no. 2, 71 p. Novokhatskii, I. P., and Kalinin, S. K., 1939, Molybdenum in mineral mine, and surface waters: Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., Comptes rendus, v. 24, p. 278-279 (in English). G58 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY Novokhatskii, I. P., and Kalinin, S. 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INDEX A Page Afghanistan, analyses of water .. 027,29 Africa, analyses of water 31-36 denudation, chemical 39 Akita Prefecture, analyses of water. SeeJapan. Alaska, analyses of water 18,19 Alekin, O. A., cited 24,25 Algeria, analyses of water 35,36 Alviela waters, analyses. See Portugal. Amazon River and tributaries, analyses 37 Analyses, Afghanistan. 27,29 Africa 31-36 Alaska.. 19 Algeria 35,36 Amazon River and tributaries 37 Angola 34 Asia, southeast .— 26-28 Atlantic Coast drainage 13 Australia 28-31 Basin-Range province 17 Bosumtwi, Lake 34,35 Brazil 36,37 British Columbia, concentrated lakes 17 closed basins, North America 15,16,17,18 Colorado River system 16 Columbia River system 18 Congo River system 34 Crimean salt lakes... 25 Danube River system __ 23,24 Dead Sea 27,30 Devil's Lake basin, North Dakota 17 Elbe River system 23,24 England 22 Estonia.... 23,24 French West Africa 36 Ganges River 27,29 Ghana 34,35 Great Lakes 12 Gulf of Mexico, eastern tributaries 14 Hudson Bay drainage 21 India 29 Iran— 27,29 Ireland, western. 22 Japan. 26-28 Kazakhstan 26 Kivu, Lake.. 34 Mackenzie River system 20 Mae Khong, river 26,28 Mexico 16 Mississippi River system 14-15 Mozambique 33, 34 New Zealand 27-28, 30 Niger River 34,35 Nigeria. 35 Nile River system 31,32 Ohio River, main stem 14 Pakistan.. 29 Peru 36,37 Portugal... _ _ 22 Rhine River system 23,24 Rhodesia 33 Rio Grande 16 Sacramento River _ 16 St. Lawrence basin ._. 11,12 Saskatchewan, closed lakes 18 Scotland 22 Somalia. 33 South America 36,37 Soviet Union 24-26 Su, River... 26,27 Page Analyses— Continued summary of publications Gil Sweden. 23,24 Tanganyika 33 Lake. 34 Texas, west _. 16 Thailand _ 26-28 Turkey 27,29 Venezuela __ 36 Anderson, V. G., cited 30 Angola, analyses of water 34 Antimony, concentration in natural waters... 45,46 Arctic lakes, analyses, variations in chemical concentration.. _ 8,9,20 Arsenic, concentration in natural waters 45, 46 Asia, denudation, chemical 39 See also Eurasia. Asia, southeast, summary of publications 26 Assiniboine River, analyses. See Hudson Bay drainage. Atlantic Coast drainage, analyses 13 Australia, analyses of water 28-31 denudation, chemical.. 39,40 B Baikal, Lake, water density 2-3 Barium, concentration in natural waters 44 Basin- Range province, analyses of water 17 B. Bogatoe, lake, analyses. See Soviet Union. Beadle, L. C, cited - 33 Beauchamp, R. S. A., cited 33 Bentor, Y. K., cited - 30 Beryllium, concentration in natural waters... 44 Birge, E. A. and Juday, C, cited.. 52 Bismuth, concentration in natural waters 45,46 Bocher, Tyge, cited.. 21 Boron, concentration in natural waters 42,43 Bosumtwi, Lake, analyses. See Ghana. Boyd, W. L., cited 9 Brazil, analyses of water 36,37 British Columbia, concentrated lakes, analyses. 17 Bromine, concentration in natural waters 41, 42 O Cadmium, concentration in natural waters 47 Canadian shield, dissolved salts 12 effects on Hudson Bay waters 20 Cape Town, diurnal pH changes in lake _ 9 Cesium, concentration in natural waters 44 Chesapeake Bay, sorptive capacity of silts — 7 Christensen, Werner, analyst 21 Chromium, concentration in natural waters.. 49,50 Clarke, F. W., cited. 23,24,37 Clinoliinnion, defined. See Stratification of lake water. Cobalt, concentration in natural waters 47,48 Colby, B. R. See Swenson, H. A. and Colby B. R. Colorado River system, analyses 16 Columbia River system, analyses — 18 Congo River system, analyses 34 Copper, concentration in natural waters 47 Crimean salt lakes, analyses 25 Cummings, J. M., cited 17 CuyahogaRiver.effectsofindustrial pollution. 12 D Dalvay Pond, analyses. See Atlantic Coast drainage. Page Dansgaard, Willi, analyst G2 Danube River system, analyses 23,24 Dead Sea, analyses 27,30 bromine content, derivation 27 Deevey, E. S. Jr., cited 16 Denudation, chemical 37-40 Deuterium, content of lakes and rivers 2,3 Devil's Lake basin, North Dakota, analyses of water 17 Discharge. See Denudation. Dunn, J. S., cited 35 Durum, W. H., cited. 5 E Ebeity, Lake, analyses. See Soviet Union. Elbe River system, analyses 23,24 Elsworth, J. F. See Schutle, E. H. and Els- worth, J. F. Encantada, Laguna, analyses. See Peru. England, miscellaneous analyses 22 Roach River, Lancashire, analyses 23 Shropshire meres, analyses - 22 Epilimnion, denned. See Stratification of lake water. Escondida, Lagoa, analyses. See Brazil. Esthwaite Water, England, redox potential... 11 stratification - 10 Estonia, analyses of water. 23,24 Eurasia, quality of data 20-22 Europe, denudation, chemical 38-39 See also Eurasia. Eyre, Lake, analyses. See Australia. F Fluorine, concentration in natural waters 41,42 summary of publications 41,42 French West Africa, analyses of water 36 Friedman, Irving, cited 3 G Gallium, concentration In natural waters 46 Ganges River, analyses. 27,29 Ghana, analyses of water 34,35 Gold, concentration in natural waters 46 Gorham, Eville, cited 22 Gowlan East, Ireland, effect of sea spray 22,23 Great Lakes, analyses .- 12 Greenland. See West Greenland. Ground water, effect on composition of river water 3-5 Gulf of Mexico, analyses of eastern tributaries. 14 H Halifax County, Nova Scotia, mean of 10 lakes, analyses. See Atlantic Coast drain- age. Hudson Bay drainage, analyses 19-21 Hypolimnion, denned. See Stratification of lake water. I Imikpuk, Lake, chemical concentration 8,9 India, analyses of water 29 Iodine, concentration in natural waters 41, 42 Iran, analyses of water 27,29 Ireland, Gowlan East, blanket bog pools, analyses 22,23 western, analyses of water 22 G63 G64 INDEX Page Iron, state in natural waters .. G8 Irwin, Wilfred, cited 30 Ishim River, analyses. See Soviet Union. Isotopes, concentration in natural waters 2, 51 J Japan, Akita Prefecture, analyses of water 26 Kanto districts, analyses of water 27 Su, River, analyses 26,27 summary of publications 26 volcanic influence of lake water 26 Juday, C. See Birge, E. A. and Juday, C. K Kanamori, Satoru. See Sugawara, Ken and Kana- mori, Satoru. Kant5 districts, analyses of water. See Japan. Kara-Bogaz-Gol, Lake, analyses. See Soviet Union. Kara) River, analyses. See Iran. Katanuma-ko, crater lake, Japan 26 Kazakhstan, lakes, analyses . 26 Kennan-kanat, analyses. See Iran. Kivu, Lake, analyses 34 Kobayashi, Shigeki, cited 26,27,28 Korat Plateau, analyses of rivers. See Thai- land. Koverjarv River, analyses. See Estonia. Kurnakov, N. S. and others, cited .. 25 L Lake water, carbonate buffer system 9 chemical stability - 8 methods and difficulties of analyses.. 9-10 stratification- 10 variation in composition 8-10 volcanic influence 26 Lead, concentration in natural waters 49 Lenore Lake, Wash., analyses 15,18 Libby, W. P., cited--. - - 3 Lithium, concentration in natural waters 43 Loftier, Heinz, cited - — . 29 M Mackenzie River system... 19,20 Mae Khong, River, analyses 26,28 Manganese, concentration in natural waters.. 50 Maracaibo, Lago de, analyses. See Venezuela. Mayo River, N.C., discharge, dissolved solid content - 4-5 Mercury, concentration in natural waters 46 Meromictic lake. See Ritom, Lac. Meromixis, denned. See Stratification of lake water. Mexico, analyses of water 16 Mining operations, effect on river water 13 Mississippi River drainage, analyses 14,15 Molybdenum, concentration in natural waters. 60 Moore, J. E. See Rawson, D. S. and Moore, J. E. Moreau River, changes in composition _. 4 Mortimer, C. H., cited 11 Mozambique, analyses of water 33,34 Page N New Zealand, analyses of water... G27-28, 30 Nickel, concentration in natural waters 47,48 Niger River, analyses.. _ 34,35 Nigeria, analyses of water 35 Nile River system, analyses 31-33 Nitrogen, detection in river water 7,8 North America, denudation, chemical 38 summary of publications 11 North Dakota, analyses of water. See Devil's Lake basin. O Odum, H. T., cited.. 9 Ohio River, analyses of main stem 14 Organic matter, concentration in natural waters 51, 52 Orinoco River, analyses. See Venezuela. Oxygen, isotopes in natural waters 2 variations in concentration 9-10 P Pakistan, analyses of water 29 Peru, analyses of water 36,37 Phillips, W. J., cited 30 Phosphorus, detection in river water 7,8 Photosynthesis, effects on variation in lake water _. 9, 10 Pollution, industrial _ 12 Portugal, analyses of water 22 Posokhov, E. V., cited 26 Precipitation. See rainfall. R Radium, concentration in natural waters 45 Rainfall, effect of concentration of natural waters 3,33 Rare gases, concentration in natural waters... 46 Rawson, D. S. and Moore, J. E., cited 18 Redox potential in Esthwaite Water 10, 11 Rhine River system, analyses 23,24 Rhodesia, analyses of lake water. 33 Ricardo, C. K., cited 33 Rio Grande basin, analyses 15, 16 Ritom, Lac, example of meromictic lake, analyses 23 River water, mean chemical composition 40, 41 methods and difficulties in analyses 6-10 sorption reactions in 6 sorptive capacity 7 variation in composition 3-8 See also individual river names. Roach River, analyses. See England. R0rdam, K., analyst 21 Rubidium, concentration in natural waters... 43 Runoff, surface, effect on composition of river water 3-6 S Sacramento River, analyses 16 St. Lawrence basin, analyses 11,12 Saline River, Kansas, specific conductance to mean daily runoff 5 Salt lakes, Crimean, analyses 26 o Page Saskatchewan, closed lakes, analyses ._ G18 Schiitle, K. H. and Elsworth, J. P., cited 9 Scotland, analyses of water 22 Sea spray, effects on water 23,31 Selenium, concentration in natural waters 45 Shropshire meres, analyses. See England. Silicon, detection in river water 7,8 Silver, concentration in natural waters 48 Silver Springs, Fla., diurnal oxygen changes in 9 Soap Lake, Wash., analyses 15,18 Somalia, analyses of water 33 South America, analyses of water 36,37 denudation, chemical _ 40 Soviet Union, analyses of water 24-26 summary of publications 24 Stratification of lake water 10 Strontium, concentration in natural waters... 44 Suckling, E. V., cited 23 Sugawara, Ken and Kanamori, Satoru, cited. 46 Sugihara, Takeshi, cited 28 Surface runoff. See Runoff. Su, River, Japan, analyses 26,27 Sweden, analyses of water _ 23,24 Swenson, H. A. and Colby, B. R., cited 17 T Tanganyika, analyses of water 33 Lake, analyses 34 Tasmania, analyses of water. See Australia. Texas, west, analyses of water 16 Thailand, analyses of rivers 26-28 Thames basin, deuterium content _ 2 Thermocline, defined. See Stratification of lake water. Tin, concentration in natural waters 49 Titanium, concentration in natural waters 49 Tritium, content in natural waters 2.3 Turns, Rasim, cited 29 Turkey, analyses of water 27,28 U Uganda, potassium content of waters 33 Uranium, concentration in natural waters 50, 51 V Vanadium, concentration in natural waters... 49 Venezuela, analyses of water. 36 Victoria, analyses of saline streams. See Australia. Visser, Simon, cited 32 Volcanic influence on lake water... 26 W West Greenland, analyses of water 20,21 White Nile. See Nile River system. Wilson, George R., analyst 33 Y Yamagata, Noboru, cited 28 Z Zinc, concentration In natural waters 48,49 Zirconium, concentration In natural waters... 49