'^ fH vA-^ 7f* Kl.% •V^' " <> vt -^ >. ^' ^■"^VA, - # ,^.w,,>., '. -. tt' f -A'S«-»4« y^s Mf/^z U. S. DjEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY - BULLETIN NO. 102. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chi^ of Bureau. MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. I. SUMMARY OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS OF THE VALUE OF . CACTI AS STOCK FOOD. Bv DAVID GRIFFITHS, Amftaiit Agrostologisl, and R. F. HARE, Chemist, Neiv Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. II. A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARM. By L. G. DODGE, Scientific Assistant. III. PLANNING A CROPPING SYSTEM. By W. J. SPILLMAN, AgriculturiM. IV. THE APPLICATION OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION TO LEGUMINOUS FORAGE PLANTS. . Bv J. M. WESTGATE, Axsii^lant Agrostologv^t, ^ and GEORGE W. OLIVER, Plant I^opagator. V. THE CONTROL OF TEXAS ROOT-ROT OF COTTON. By C. L. SHEAR. Patholoqist, and GEORGE F. OVULES, Scientific Assintant. VI. THE HISTORY OF THE CO^J'PEA AND ITS INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. By W. F. AVIGHT, Amdant BotaniM. YII. A NEW METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF NICOTINE IN TaRACCO. Bv WIGHTMAN W. GARNER, Scientific Assistant. Issued Sepxembeb 9, 1907. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1907. BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, are issued in a single series of bulletins, a list of which follows. Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for gen- eral distribution. Tiie Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, is authorized by law to sell them at cost, and to him all applica- tions for these bulletins should be made, accompanied by a postal money order for the required amount or by cash. No. 1. Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. [Out of print.] 6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 10. Records of Seed Distribution, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 11; Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 14. Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. 15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 16. Germination of the Sporesof Agaricus Campestris, etc. 1902. [Out of print. ] 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. [Out of print.] 22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 23. Berseem. 1902. [Out of print.] 24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 25. Miscellaneous Papers. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. [Out of print.] 27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, etc. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 28. The Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. [Out of print.] 29. The Effect of Black-Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Prict?, 10 cents. 32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 34. Silkworm Food Plants. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 36. The "Bluing" of the Western Yellow Pine, etc. 1903. Price, 30 cents. 37. Formation of the Spores in the Sporangia of Rhizopus Nigricans and of Phy- comyces Nitens. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 38. Forage Conditions in Eastern Washington, etc. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 39. The Propagation of the Easter Lily from Seed. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 40. Cold Storage, with Reference to the Pear and Peach. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 41. The Commercial Grading of Corn. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 42. Three New Plant Introductions from Japan. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 43. Japanese Bamboos. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 44. The Bitter-Rot of Apples. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 45. Physiological Rule of Mineral Nutrients in Plants. 1903. Price, 5 cents. . 46. Propagation of Tropical Fruit Trees, etc. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 48. The Apple in Cold Storage. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 49. Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree. 1903. Price, 25 cents. 50. Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 51 . Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 52. Wither-Tip and Other Diseases of Citrus Trees and Fruits Caused by Colle- totrichum Gloeosporioides. 1904. Price, 15 cents. 53. The Date Palm. 1904. Price, 20 cents. [Continued on page 3 of cover.] 102 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.j BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 102. B. T. GALI.OWAY, thuf nf linreau. MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. L SUMMARY OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS OF THE VALUE OF CACTI AS STOCK FOOD. By DAVID GRIFFITH.*^, Amslunt Af/roxtologiM, and R. F. IIAKE, (IwiniM, Xen- Mcjiro Collror of AgrimUiire and Mechanic Arts. II. A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARM. By L. G. DODGE, Scientific Assistant. ^'BRARY III. PLANNING A CROPPING SYSTEM. ^^^ "^^^^ ByW. J. SPILLMAN, .lf/nVurt»ra<. ^'"'ANlCAL IV. THE APPLICATION OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION TO ^^ LEGUMINOUS FORAGE PLANTS. Bv J. M. WF:STGAT]-; A.isistaiit Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods. Laboratory of Plant Patholouil, Erwin F. Smith, rathologist in Charge. Investigations of Diseases of Fruits. Merton B. AYaite. Pathologist in Charge. Laboratoru of Forest Patholop)/, Haven Metcalf, Pathologist in Charge. Plant Life History Investigations, Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge. Cotton and Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Archibald D. Shamel, Physiologist in Charge. Corn Investigations, Charles P. Hartley, Physiologist in Charge. Alkali and Drought-Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Thomas H. Kearney, Physi- ologist in Charge. Soil Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge. Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, Orator F. Cook, Biojiomist in Charge. Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and Tea Culture Investigations, Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge. Physical Laboratory, Lyman .T. Briggs, Physicist in Charge. Crop Technology Investigations, Nathan A. Cobb, Expert in CLiarge. Taxononiic Investigations, Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge. Farm Management Investigations, William J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge. Grain Investigations, Mark A. Carleton. Cerealist in Charge. Arlington Ejperimental Farm, Lee C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge. Sugar-Beet Investigations, Charles O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge. Western Agricultural Extension Investigations, Carl S. Scofleld. Agriculturist in Charge. Dry Land Agriculture Investigations, E. Channing Chilcott. Agriculturist in Charge. Pomological Collections, Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge. Field Investigations in Pomology, William A. Taylor and lant 11 A l)alanced ration of prickly pear 12 Relative value of the three groups of cacti 14 Common and scientific names 15 Climatic requirements of pricklj- pears 16 The use of prickly ]>ear in Mexico 17 The species of cacti and their analyses 17 A successful dairy farm 19 Introduction 19 The rotation followed 20 Harvesting the hay 21 Feed for the cows and calves 22 Butter production 23 Poultry production 23 Results achieved 23 Planning a cropping system 25 Introduction 25 B'arm selected to illustrate the methods used in planning a cropping system. 27 The rotations adopted 29 Arrangement of cropping systems for farms 31 The application of vegetative propagation to leguminous forage plants 33 Introduction 33 Description of the method employed in the vegetative propagation of legu- minous plants 34 Application of the method to practical plant-breeding problems 35 The control of Texas root-rot of cotton '39 Introduction 39 Cause of root-rot - - 39 Efforts to control the disease 40 Rotation of crops 40 Aeration of the soil by deep plowing 40 Deep fall plowing 40 Deep spring plowing and subsoiling 41 Treatment recommended 41 « The seven papers constituting this bulletin were issued in separate form on January 4, January 30, ^Nlarch 14, March 23, March 30, June 10, and July 6, 1907, respectively. 102 3 4 CONTENTS. Page. The history of the cowpea and its introduction intf) America 43 Introduction 43 History 44 A new method for the determination of nicotine in tobacco 61 The relation of nicotine to the quality of tobacco 61 The quantitative determination of nicotine in tobacco 62 The proposed new method _ 64 Preliminary experiments 64 Description of the method 66 Comparison of the new method with that of Kissling 67 Conclusion 68 Index 71 102 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Page. Plate I. Nopal cardon {Opuntia utreptacantha Lehm. ), the most important of the Mexican prickly pears 14 II. Fig. 1. — View across the lower end of the McDonald farm, showing the buildings, the dwelling house being partially concealed in the trees. Fig. 2. — View across the upper end of the farm, showing the st> ft r^ a J m o Scientific name of cactus. Locality. Date of collection. e C3 u ce •^ c B 1- § T3 *^ u a ^ o o ir 03 O 03 CO P. (t. P. ct. P.ct. fi'AW Opuntia fulgida Santa Catalina May 4,1904 Mountains, .\riz. (6-6) 14 25 74 1 65 6331 Echinocereus enneacanthus Eagle Pass, Te.x . . May 10,1904 Plant... 1 17.78 .26 3.31 3(M)(> Opuntia macrocentra. . Garfield, N. Mex.. July 11,1904 Tucson, Ariz July 28,1904 Encinal. Te.x Jan. 17.1905 16.45 15.75 21.05 .62 .17 .14 4.27 6699 Cereus giganteus Opuntia lindheim 1 .44 7515 Bri r?- 1-1)3 .29 Composite . Average of £ ' .38 .40 3.17 ill asl les... 19.65 2.40 Pure ash. ft a I? 60 2" 1 2 0-5 GO o Scientific name of cactus. a CO a a H CO 2g O O CO o 03O O o 3 s 3 ^ §t» o — a — 0) 1 1 ■ a S a 3 a 3 '3 OS o CO 1 CO O Ph a 3 O 03 ft.2 •- cS 3 V 3 '" m 3 5 •a ai -I O "3 o P.cl. P.ct. p.ct. P.ct. p.ct. P.ct. P. Cl. P.ct. p.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P. c^ P.c<. 6255 Opuntia fulgida . . 0.21 0.53 0.09 24.31 8.10 11.89 0.00 0.63 2.54 2.00 1.33 42.73 94.36 6331 Eciiinocereus en- neacantiius. .31 .13 .09 22.66 5.07 16.61 .62 .80 1.20 2.35 2.90 42.63 95.37 3000 Opuntia macro- centra. .53 .00 .56 24.75 8.25 8.33 1.57 1.56 2.14 1.16 .95 44.80 94.60 6699 Cereus giganteus.. .30 .07 .15 31.64 5.78 6.66 .00 .37 .88 4.12 3.32 41.06 94.55 7515 Opuntia lindhei- meri. .20 .00 .49 26.71 2.27 14.22 .35 .43 1.11 1.15 2.15 49.12 98.26 Composite. . .36 .31 .83 28.90 6.85 10.49 .47 1.90 2.70 1.94 2.20 33.76 90.71 Average of .31 .24 .36 27.38 5. 31 9.71 .42 1.58 1.39 1.64 1.84 45.90 95. 75 all ashes. 102—1 a For explanation of formula, see page 6. ». VALUE OF CACTI AS FOOD FOR STOCK. 11 FOOD VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PLANT. The opinion is prevalent in southern Texas that the old woody- stems of Opuntia lindheimeri fed there are much more valuable as a stock food than the j-ounger growths. So fu-mly do many l^elievc this that they practice cutting off and throwing away two or three of the terminal joints when feeding. In Mexico, on the contrary, the young growth is always fed; but there the species are conunonly much larger and stouter, and the trunks are altogether too woody to be fed even if it were desirable to do so. The reasons for the opin- ions current in Texas are rather clearly brought out in the analyses. The younger growth has a relatively higher water content, and there- fore probably causes more scouring, which is the only evil influence overcome by a rejection of it. On the other hand, the old stems contain a jnuch larger proportion of liber and are really of less forage value. Guthrie,'^ after comparing liis owti analysis of the stems of four Australian species with the analysis of fruits nuideby Wolf, concludes that the latter are of less forage value than the stems, because they contain a smaller proportion of nutritious substance and more crude fiber. Forbes,^ on the other hand, concludes from analyses of Ari- zona cylindrical-jointed species that the fruits of these species are relished by cattle on account of their high ether extract (including fats). Our analyses show that the ether extract is nuxinly a constit- uent of the seeds, and since these pass through cattle undigested can contribute nothing to either the palatability or nutritive value of this part of the plant. That the seed is not digested is plainly shown in the case of Opuntia lindheimeri in many favorable seasons in por- tions of Texas. In the vicinity of Austin, in the early spring of 1904, there were numberless young plants springing up from cattle drop- pings in many of the pastures. They were fully as numerous in some situations as are the seedlings of the mesquite under similar condi- tions in favorable seasons in the river valleys of Arizona and on the plains of southern Texas. This applies to the genus Opuntia, to which belong the prickly pears and cane cacti. The seeds of the other group are very different in character. There is no doubt that burros, which commonly feed upon the fruits of the viznaga {Ecliinocadus wislizeni) , get a great deal of nourishment out of the seeds, which are very oily and easily masti- cated. It is interesting to note that No. 8170a {Opuntia fulgida) contains but little more food value in the whole fruit than is found in the pulpy portion alone, but in this sample most of the seeds were poorly developed or sterile. Other samples of fruit of the same species show an apparently greater food value. o Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, 11: 671. 1900. i) Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 15: 496. 1904. 102-1 12 MISCELLANEOrs PAPEES. Table II. — Chemical composition of the different parts of fruits of cacti. Nnni- ber of sam- ple. Scientific name of cactus. Part of fruit analyzed. Water. Ash. Pro- tein., Nitro- Fat. i,&- tract. Fiber. (or- ganic mat- ter. 8022a Opuntia phaeaeantha Opuntia phaeacantlia Opuntia spinosior ... Opuntia spinosior... Ecb'uocactus wisliz- eni. Echinocactus wisliz- eni. Opuntia fulgida Opuntia fulgida Seed. P.ct. 7.26 92.50 77.74 83.04 8.59 P.ct. 1.75 2.09 2.97 3.10 3.09 P.ct. 6.07 .20 1.74 .55 10.92 .63 .63 .47 P. ct. P. ct. 11.41 23.18 .07 1 4.63 1.11 11.50 .24 11.74 P. ct. 50.33 .51 4.94 1.33 25.37 1.16 1.69 .91 P. ct. 90.99 8022b Pulp 5.41 8162a 8162b Whole fruit. . . Pulp 19.29 13.86 8173a Seed . . 15.46 .06 .51 .27 36.59 3.05 11.63 9.66 88. .31 8173b Pulp 94. 14 . 96 82. 84 2. 70 87. 17 1 ."iS 4.90 8170a 8170b Whole fruit. . . Pulp 14.46 11.25 It must be undertood that we have analyzed here but few fruits aside from those which are of more value for forage than they are as food for man. None of the cylindrical-jointed species and but few of the native prickly pears of the United States bear edible fruits. A BALANCED RATION OF PRICKLY PEAR. To determine in just what proportion cactus should be fed w4th other foods to produce a balanced ration, it is necessary to know the amount of digestible nutrients contained in the cactus, as well as those of the food or foods with which it is to be fed. This has been determined for most foods, but unfortunately there are as yet no such data for the cacti. It is hoped to be able soon to obtain the coeffi- cient of digestion for Opuntia llndheimeri. P'or the present, all that can bedone is to assume this digestibility coefficient to be the same as that of some food as similar in chemical composition and properties to the cacti as possible. It is somewhat difficult to secure a green fodder very similar in character to cactus, but perhaps its digestion coefficient wdll not be missed very far by assuming it to be the same as that of immature green corn fodder. By using the coefficient for tliis fodder the nutrients in Opuntia lindheimen are found to be: Protein, 0.47 per cent ; fat, 0.26 per cent ; carbohydrates, 7.85 per cent. This being the case, cactus Avould have a nutritive ratio of 1:18, a ratio wdiich according to the best authorities \vould prohibit its use alone for any feeding standard. The nutritive ratio for a standard ration varies from 1:4 to 1:12, depending upon the age, character, and kind of animal to be fed, as well as the object of the feeding; that is, whether it is desired to produce work, flesh, or milk. If the object of feeding is to produce milk, a cow giving a heavy yield of milk should, according to the best authorities, be fed about 25 to 30 pounds a day of organic matter, containing from 1.8 to 2 pounds of digestible protein, from 0.4 to 0.7 pound of digestible fat, and 11 to 13 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, making a nutritive 102—1 VALUE OF CACTI A8 FOOD FOR STOCK. 13 ratio of from about 1 : 5.5 to 1 : 7. If a cow requiring a ration of this kind should eat cactus alone, it would take 160 pounds to furnish the fats and carbohydrates and an additional 240 pounds to furnish sufficient protein, and since to avoid scouring a cow should prob- ably not be fed to exceed 50 or 60 pounds of cactus a day, it may be readily seen how impossible it would be for a milk cow to get even a one-sided ration from cactus alone. A ration of 40 pounds of cactus with 10 pounds of wheat bran and 12 pounds of corn stover would furnish the nutrients in somewhat near the proper proportion. In a ration of this kind the cow would get 21.16 pounds of organic matter, containing 1.68 pounds of pro- tein, 11.82 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.49 pound of fat, which is in a ratio of 1 :7.7. If a ration is desired in which the cactus is fed with dried brewers' grain and cotton-seed meal, it could be nuide by feeding 60 pounds of cactus with 14 pounds of brewers' grain and 1 pound of cotton-seed meal. In this case 20.58 pounds of organic matter are fed, containing 2.85 pounds of protein, 10.38 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1 pound of fat. This ration would contain the nutrients in the ratio of 1 : 4.5. If tliis ration is considered too narrow, it could be widened to good advan- tage by feeding with it a small quantity of coarse, dry fodder, rather than by increasing the amount of cactus. A balanced ration of cotton-seed meal and cactus can not be pre- pared, for if the meal be fed in just sufficient quantity to furnish the proteids it would necessitate the feeding of too much cactus to sup- ply the remainder of the carbohydrates. From this it must not be inferred that a mixture of these foods would not make a desirable ration; in fact, current successful practice has demonstrated that it will. For example, a ration of prickly pear and cotton-seed meal was fed to steers for one hundred and five days in a recent experiment conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry at Encinal, Tex., with a gain of 1| pounds of flesh a day at a cost of only 3 J cents. Any ration of these two foods that would secure this gain each day would contain an excess of the proteids over an amount necessary for a bal- anced ration. Fortunately, however, an excess of proteids can be utilized in serving the function of the carbohydrates in the animal body, and this no doubt is what took place in the above experiment. Usually proteids are the most expensive foods for man and beast, and it is poor economy to substitute them for carbohydrates; yet such a condition is not uncommon in Texas cattle feeding, where cotton-seed meal is cheaper than other more starchy foods. 102—1 14 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. RELATIVE VALUE OF THE THREE GROUPS OF CACTI. On account of several practical considerations the prickly pears are of much more value than either of the other two groups. They are more numerous in the wdld state, they adapt themselves to culti- vation more readily, make a more rapid growth, and are more readily propagated from cuttings, all of wliich are of ^"ital importance in the economic use and handling of the crop. Practically all of the Mex- ican prickly pears are fed to stock to a greater or less extent, espe- cially those gi'o\\'ing where fodder is the most scarce, but there is only one cj'lindrical-jointed species (Opuntia imhricata) wliich is used to any appreciable extent. The experience of the writers has shown that Cereus giganteus is readily eaten by cattle when chopped up, but they know of no actual feeding having been conducted %\-ith it on any commercial scale. ^Ir. C. R. Orcutt states that Echinocactus orcuttii, which is tyj^ical of a considerable group of species, is occa- sionally fed in Lower California. It is only in rare instances, how- ever, that any great quantity of feed can be secured from cacti, out- side of the genus Opuntia, and the greater part of the feed in this genus is produced by the flat-jointed forms. There are about five species in the cylindrical-jointed group which have been fed ^^'ith some success. Opuntia imhricata, from ^lexico, has been referred to, and in various writings the use of Opuntia arhorescens, Opuntia spi- nosior, and Opuntia fulgida are mentioned. To these should be added Opuntia prolifera from the coastal region of southern Cali- fornia. These species constitute, ^^'ithout doubt, the best of the cylindrical-jointed group, and when extent of territory covered, suc- culence, and ease of propagation are taken into consideration Opuntia fulgida and Opuntia imhricata are probably the most valuable of this group. Opuntia arhorescens has a decidedlj^ valuable character- istic in that it extends farther to the north than any of the other economic species of any of the groups, and it is fed to a considerable extent in localities from southern Colorado southward. The use of these species, however, and, in fact, the extended use of nearl}^ all the native species of this country and Mexico, presupposes artificial preparation. In dry seasons in southern Arizona, cattle feed upon the pendent bunches of fruits of the choUa {Opuntia fulgida), but it is done at a great sacrifice of comfort. The Texas pear (Opuntia lindJieinneri) is grazed to a considerable extent by cattle, sheep, and goats \vithout an}^ preparation whatever, and even such thorny forms as cardon, shown in Plate I, are grazed by cattle in extreme cases. '^ a For fm-ther discussion, see Bulletin 74 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 102—1 Bui. 102, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. VALl'E OF TACTI AS FOOD FOR STOCK. 15 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES. Considerable attention has been g:iven to the popular names by which the various species are designated, especially the larger Mexican forms, but inasmuch as these are to be more fully considered in another publication now in process of preparation a full discussion of the subject is postj)oned. The chaotic condition of the scientihc literature and the general unperfection of knowledge of prickly-pear forms have rendered it very difhcult to properly name the species discussed. The purpose of the A\Titers has been to present the exact status of their information, indicating a doubt wherever one occurs. The Engelmann species, which arc largely I'nited States forms, are comparatively easily deter- mined, in most cases through a reference to the types in the herbarium of the Missouri Botanical Garden. In case of long-established species, however, it is absolutely impossible to correlate the specimens with the literature and deternnne what name belongs to the plant under dis- cussion. (Jjnintia tuna, for instance, has been paraded in literature a great deal, and to it has been assigned all sorts of species; but, as pointed out b}^ Berger and Maiden especially, no one knows what the species is, and the writers know of no way by which its identity can ever be determined. Some species are referred to their proper genera only. Others are given common names besides, but the majority of them are given scientific names. All species receiving chemical analyses are repre- sented in our collections by specimens mounted upon sheets in the ordinar^^ way or put up in boxes or in liquid. Many are growling in conservatories or upon one of the plantations maintained by the United States Department of Agriculture, while the seeds of many species have been widely distributed to those interested in the scien- tific and economic study of the group. The work is therefore well supported by specimens to which access will be had in completing in the future such naming as has not liitherto been undertaken. It was early recognized that good drj- specimens were absolutely necessary for this work in order to make the chemical analyses and determi- nations of permanent value. Whenever a sample or set of samples represents a striking or con- stant variation it is treated separately in the text; consequently Opuntia lincnieimeri, for instance, appears several times under two or more headings. Each number or group of numbers is accompanied by a brief set of notes made in the field beside the plant when the sam- ples were collected, elaborated and perfected by subsec^uent experience. These are presented as field notes simply and not as full technical descriptions. This rather fidl set of notes, popular and scientific names, and, as a final resort, our specimens and photographs, w^ill make it possible to easily verify the determinations of the writers. 4359— No. 102—07 2 16 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS OF PRICKLY PEARS. Prickly pears and other cacti are apparently inseparably connected in the pubhc mind with drought and heat, but this conception of the requirements for their best development is far from perfect. Our driest deserts produce none of these plants in economic quantities, and the same is true of our hottest regions. Rather than say they are adapted to conditions of extreme heat and drought, it should be said that they thrive best in a region which has an equable tempera- ture and a considerable rainfall periodically distributed. There is certainly no region in the world where these plants grow naturally in such profusion as they do upon the plateau of Mexico, but this is not a hot country; neither is it excessively dry. It is very dry during a large part of the year. It is a desert as compared with eastern Texas, for instance, but it has a considerable rainfall during an average year. The rain falls mostly in the summer, and then the country looks like anything but a desert. The average rainfall at Zacatecas for the past ten years, as stated by Mr. Albert L. de Lautreppe, who has made a special study of the weather records of that city in connection with a business venture, is 31^ inches, but the average for the seasons from January to April and from October to December is only five- eighths of an inch to 2| inches, while the average for the other months of the year is 3^ to 7J inches a month. June, July, and August are the rainy months, having an average rainfall of 4^ to 7 J inches each for the past ten years. While many species appear to be able to withstand high tempera- tures, they develop naturally in the greatest profusion where the heat is not excessive. The plateau of Mexico is a region with compara- tively equable climate. Some species thrive under extremes of heat. Opuntia lindheimeri is at home in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas and Chihuahua, and the closely related Opuniia engelmanni and Opuntia engelmanni cy chides thrive in southern Arizona, where the mercury often reaches 111° F. On the other hand, there are species which grow where the winter temperatures go to at least -40° F., but the plants are small and of no economic importance in them- selves except as they may be used to give a hardy character to more valuable species. The valuable species of the Mexican liighlands thrive where the temperature falls to 14° F. in very rare instances. Usually the freezing point is only rarely reached here. During the past ^vinter (1905-6) the mercury dropped at the city of Zacatecas to 14° F., and many of the more delicate spineless forms, as well as the natives, were badly injured. No pear was killed outright, but the branches were frozen down for four or more joints. These rotted and dropped off, but the old trunks survived. Opuntia lindheimeri, the common species of southern Texas, has been injured very severely within the memory of the present generation. It suffered some injury 102—1 VALUE OB^ CACTI AS FOOD FOR STOCK. 17 during- the winter of 1904-5. In the vicinity of San Antonio many of the plants drooj)cd badly after the coldest weather, which reijis- tered a temperature of 12° F. The majority of the plants straight- ened up again, but in many the distal joints droi)j)ed off as the result of freezing. THE USE OF PRICKLY PEAR IN MEXICO. In Mexico the use of the prickly pear is much more varied than in this country. There the established plantations are guarded fi'om animal depredations either by rude fences or hedges of some of the tall columnar species of Cereus or the more spiny opuntias. The latter are planted thickly in borders around the more nearly spineless forms, which stock eat readily. All of the species are fed to stock indiscriminately. "Wliatever is available and can be spared is singed and fed to cattle. So far as observed, the durasnillo (Opuntia leucotiicha) is preferred to all others. This is due to some extent to its small liber content, but more espe- cially to its abundant delicate spines, which are singed off more readily than those of other species which have fewer spines. However, the extent of cattle fcedino: upon this kind of food is not so great in Mexico as one would suppose from the abundance of the material and the great extent of time during which the practice has been in vogue. The fact is that the average Mexican peon can not aft'ord to feed to stock what he himself can use so profitably in other ways. The prickly pear is to liim primarily an article of human food, and its place can not be taken by any other plant. The young joints as well are eaten by man in ^lexico, and the dried stems and joints are used for fuel. Of course, this fuel is exceedingly poor, but it serves the purpose in that land where this commodity is exceedingly scarce. The feeding of cacti to stock, therefore, is a secondary consideration. The limbs wliich break oft" and such other portions of the orchard material as can be spared without seriously jeopardizing the tuna crop, together with such wild forms as are available, are fed to cattle. On some of the large haciendas, especially those devoted to maguey culture, the feeding of pear to work oxen during the grassless season is a regular practice, but then only wild forms are used. Over a large part of the Repub- lic, therefore, although the prickly pears are much used for forage, their principal use is as an article of human food. THE SPECIES OF CACTI AND THEIR ANALYSES. In all, 67 species and varieties of cacti are discussed, all of which have been analyzed chemically, some represented by as liigh as five samples. One hundred and eighty-seven fodder analyses and 26 complete ash analyses have been made. The following brief table will illustrate the characteristic composition of representative sam- ples, together with an average of all the samples. 102—1 18 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS. s '■e c 00 s e Si. C3 O o o m < •ja^j'Bai ofuvSiQ . Ci t^ ■— o c^ -- -^ Oi r^ c o o ^ r^ i^ lO c-i r^ t^ ri — »-'r ro ■CA ~- C-. O — ' " " "" ' G, t>- t~ w t~ 00 CO O X O X Oi X t^ t^ t^ t^ t^ •jaqg apnjo CO cc re o C, rt rt C-l W rH : :c X X «0 ; C) Ci CO 1^ — ,-tCCi-' c^ O L'l c; — O :C; X c: 1^ cv t~ — ; L-^ o 1^ r^ 1^ fc :o cc O r^ ^ w cc o cc -^ »^ re c^i — , ^ ^ — -^ 4 *J *> J 4^" I ^> .... . ........... _.. • ^ • aaj J - TiaSoa^i^ ■^ -- r-) c;; iTi — -C TP -^ -^ »-' o rc o r^ » r^ ^ ^ c; — t^ O f"* ^^ ^ ^' ^^ ■^ iC iC U^ lOtO *^Bj apnjo •^ 9S ' CJ • -^ re L- TT ro O Ei, CJ — :^^ ^ ^ (M Ci O '-'". O "-"^ O re i^ O C"- ^~ r- r- "^ -^ c^i •— • "^ O — ~ r- Le L- ic '-': c '^ O ^"• * C^ i^ *^ r-^ O r- ^ 'S' — X C; •-'^ ■^ — — uT L'; X »0 CO •jai^AV ^ C5 rc ^T O iC cj CO o ^^ ce X X i-o — X o "-e c c~- X re -.r >5 ■-C i-e'^ce::^c;— '^-X'H"--».'i o -^ ue :c *-o '.C t^ — "^ L'^ L* ^ X X o c: u- re X :r- X X — >-ei i-e X »-'w i-e — to ■saaids -co i«,-,- CO ■ • (re c -^ o • ■^ & ^ -: -. -. =". & c^i i; c d ci x' e^i ^- ,;> fip c o re < H-4 "i. P^ "^ fe ^ *-n •jajj'Biu ointiSjo . ^« c^ -^ X i^i ce ue ei re c~. .— X 'J' re — ;C o ^ ^ •*.iO0 t^c^ot^ ^ ^ — c^^r-.oe)*t^'^^''Ci ■^'3 - -^^ ci * CO '.£> .5 r^ ^rt t~ X o e> re X •.; .c re x -^ -^ ^ , re ce lir ■^ T re *c c- "^ t>^ o c ej r- o ■jaqg apruo •jovjixa 88JJ - uaSojiix • r~ := CO >.o ro — ce c. r- C'l X CiXxrererJC. »— t^;:^w ;oo"^oce!N >o CO i-H o lo -^ t^ — - re — 3-' ce X -^ 0-. ci t~ •jKjaptiJo •niajojd apnj^ ^00 i^ c^ :o »o ro sS :c CO ic o o 10 c; w CO t^ ocicorc o ■H'OC-iCicociCiOLeo-^ ■qsy ue re c. -.; X -.c — re C-. LO o X c: c: CJ ei X re c^i t^ 1^ ei 1^ o c^ I-* w CO re ei C'l c^i re c-i ^ C-) — re ce — .M ^rioc^c; e-i c^O'— 'Core — rexci^rr^ ei — ^ — i^x •«^ t-. S OS ^ i^ i ic ib X i= o -o ce •<:• CI X — I -c re ce ri ^r x ^ 00 •sauidg ! >:; ■X • • — . 1.0 . • X t^ M -V • • • ■ 1^ cq ^ i; i~ C) t-- c. ;j ^ ^ ^ fa o fa •CO :S : : : : :::::: r^-H • --i e^ ci '• ' • • '.'..'.'.'. '• ;o£ :i4, : : : : :::::: p. s o 3 o S2 CO C " ' c .=^ 'coo DO C E O ~ ~ E ' c3 '^ c t. ; " ■— ; tJ Hfa -S »■ r^ >-.-^ X ^. ^ X K Zfi C o - ~ -3 5^ 9 ■— ■ c ■;-s-.. Ifafafafa S- .2 ° o Oi E C oj fc o o o c c c C ■ •a "So *: occticcocccc c .-o-^T- — -c "cco "O t; TJ £,« : : : c, : : : : I : : o :: :o :::::. . tic . . sb : : K O C p-c-c & ! ! o ■ • C • • - ^ • ft ■ >-.-c 3 •2 S.2 • K •! s . I. ^ 3 ■ ^ X O ■ 0._ G • ft*? c . fe re .^ c:.— . c O ft ri cS c: **-^ C»-< «-l 000 SbaSb ft o ccccecccccco t- c o 5: : ; M '■ '• ^ u »~i coo > > s- <« •3\6.va.Tss JO jaqnmiii 08 J2 Si r~cot~'^ ce 5SNce>n«.ooc: >-eoi^rt — c: o ro o CO »-o ue ue uo uo lo c^ ci x r^ r^i x — < ^h ».e w x B. F. I.— 243. A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY TAKM." By L. G. DoEKJE, Si'ietttilic Assishml, Fdnn MniKU/nnnil InieatigadoTis. INTRODUCTION. In Dolawaro Count}-, N. Y., i.s a farm of 200 acres, owned by John T. McDonald and nianaged by him as a dairy farm. Al)out half of the hind is meadow and half is permanent pastur(\ A small portion of the meadow is each year plowed up for other crops— a few acres of corn for soiliiio- and a few acres of pinis and oats for hay. This farm lies in the valley of a ti-ibutary of th(^ n«>laware River and extends up the hills on either side, .so that the tillajrc land is gently rolling, while the pasture is comparatively steep. The soil is a reddish brown loam, originally lilled with fragments of shale rock. The dwelling house, l)arn, and dairy are located on the highway at a little distance from the creek, and the mill and tenant houses near the road cro.s.sing the creek. (PI. I, tig. 1.) The water supply is abundant, coming from several springs nearly lOO feet higher than the buildings. The shipping point is 5i miles distant, over an easy road. The dwelling house of the owner is provided with good plumbing, is well heated, and is lighted by electricity. The barn contains 124 cow stalls on the main floor and has a manure cellar ))elow. The sec- ond floor can be driven upon also, and has six hor.se .stalls and a grain room, while most of the remainder is used as a hay loft. The dairy building adjoins the barn and is equipped with steam power and the necessary machinery for butter making. A small mill for sawing and planing and for grinding grain is run by water power from the brook. In this building is a small dynamo, also run by water power, which furnishes light for all the buildings, including the cow and horse stables, the dairy building, and the three small houses for the farm «This article is one of a series issued by the Bureau of Plant Industry giving the results of the study of systems of management on successful farms of various types. The cropping system on the farm here described is unique, in that half the land is in permanent pasture and half in nearly permanent meadow. Each year a few acres of the meadow that seem most to need resetting are broken up, sown to peas and oats with which grasses and clovers are seeded, or planted to corn for soiling, this to be followed by peas and oats with grasses and clovers. The special lesson to be learned from this farmer's practice is the method of managing permanent grass land to main- tain its productivity. — W. J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge of Farm Management Investigations. 19 20 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. hands, as well as the owner's residence. There are also a small tool shed and ha}- barn near the large barn and a tool shed near the mill. The farm supports about 100 head of milch cows, 25 head of young stock, 600 hens, 5 horses, and 3 or 4 hogs. Eight hired men are em- ployed the year round. More cows are in milk in winter than in summer and the extra work in the dairy compensates for the decreased field work in winter. The equipment of implements, tools, machiner}-, etc., is as follows: Two" plows of the swivel t3'pe (hillside plows); 2 harrows; 1 manure spreader; 1 grain drill; 1 6-foot mower; 2 ha}" rakes (1 one-horse, 1 two-horse); 1 tedder (one or two horse); 2 wagons, with hay racks and brake; 1 express wagon; 1 set of ice tools; dair}- equipment; saw and grist mill equipment; dynamo and lights; 1 incubator. The land is not divided by fences into small lots, but is inclosed entirely by a stone wall, which was built when clearing the land of stone, for all the land was formerl}^ as ston}'^ as the pastures now are. (See PI. I, fig. 2.) Some of the tillage land has been drained with stone underdrains, and from a good deal of it there has been a great number of old pine stumps pulled out. THE ROTATION FOLLOWED. The rotation on this farm, if such it ma}' be called, is exceedingly simple. Broadly speaking, half the land is in permanent pasture and half in meadow. Most of the 100 acres of meadow land is in grass and clover. Each year about 12 to 15 acres of this grass that seem most to need renewing are broken up. Of this, 2 or 3 acres are devoted to corn for green feed in late summer, to be followed by peas and oats the next spring. The remaining 10 to 12 acres are sown at once to peas and oats for hay. In each of these cases grass and clover are sown with the peas and oats, the land thus being returned to semi- permanent meadow. If the seeding fails, it is repeated after the peas and oats are cut for hay. This gives a long period during which the land stays in grass, but owing to the fact that the owner spreads the manure from more than a hundred head of live stock upon this land, hauling it at nearly all seasons of the year, midwinter and haying time excepted, the fields are kept in such a productive condition as to cut an average of 2 tons of hay per acre over the entire meadow area, includ- ing the peas and oats. As soon as the ground is hard enough to drive over in the spring, the manure is brushed with a brush harrow, the man who drives the harrow sowing at the same time a very light application of clover seed — so light, in fact, that 1 bushel of red clover and 1 bushel of alsike mixed go over the greater part of the 100 acres. Or, when manure is being spread in the spring, some clover seed is applied by sprinkling about a cupful on top of the loaded manure spreader. This plan 102— u Bui. 102, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. K%ip«r^«r ;^g ^ ■. ^.--^-^ j»?'*^::l- ■ r**^., , . ■:: Fig. 1.— View Across the Lower End of the McDonald Farm, Showing the Build- ings, THE Dwelling House Being Partially Concealed in the Trees. Fig. 2.— View Across the Upper End of the Farm, Showing the Stony Nature of THE Land in the Pasture, the Present Condition of the Hay Land, and the Location of the Mill Pond. A SITCCESSFITL DAIRY FARM. 21 provides for renewal of the .clover and, throii<;h the ai^ency of the clover and manure, niamtains a better condition of the other grasses. The owner believes also that the seedling plants of the clover hold better through an unfavorable winter in the sod than they would in a newly fitted seed bed. The manure is applied, so far as possible, with a spreader. Oats and peas are seeded at the rate of 2 bushels of oats and 1 of peas per acre; with these 6 quarts each of timothy and clover per acre are sown, the drill with which the grain is sown being provided with a grass-seed attachment. Then if the oats lodge or the season is unfavorable, so that the grass is killed out, a new application of seed is made as soon as the oats and peas are cut, and the seed worked in with a brush harrow. Following this a light coating of manure is put on with the spreader. If the field should come in full of weeds it would be replowed before seeding, but in an}' case the owner's plan is to get a stand of grass as soon as possible, that being his best crop. HARVESTING THE HAY. Since ha}' is the principal crop on this farm, it is worth while to consider the method employed in putting in the hay and the utiliza- tion of labor at that work. On the first day of hay harvest one man runs the mower in the forenoon; another man runs the tedder in the forenoon and the rake in the afternoon. Late in the afternoon one or more men begin cocking the raked hay. In the forenoon of the second and later days one man with a team runs the mower, another the tedder, and four men spread out the hay cocked the previous afternoon in order that it may dry. In the after- noons two men and teams haul hay from the Held to the barn. The proprietor works the hay fork on the loaded wagon, two men distrib- ute the hay in the mow, two pitch hay in the field, one rakes the hay cut and tedded in the forenoon, and another cocks the raked hay. The man last mentioned also finds time to feed the hens in the after- noon. One of the hands spends his whole time in the dairy. Another man is engaged in the dairy in the forenoons for a local dairy company whose milk is handled in Mr. McDonald's building, while in the after- noons this man works for Mr. McDonald in the hayfields or wherever needed. Consequently in the forenoons there are eight men besides the proprietor at work, and in the afternoons nine men are working on the farm. During forenoons in hay harvest the proprietor spends his time grinding sickles and in superintending the work of his men so as to keep them all profitably employed. From 5 to 6 o'clock in the afternoon most of the men are kept busy milking. Those who handle the work teams, however, have 102—11 22 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. their teams to care for, and, during hay harvest, one of these is back in the field shortly after 5.30 and both wagons are loaded and drawn in before 6.15 o'clock. The lighter team is hitched to the two-horse rake at 6 o'clock and rakes until 7.30. The men who milk, after get- ting their supper go to the field for a short time to bunch up hay or load the two wagons. This makes a long day for the men, but this extra labor is required for only a short time in the busy part of the haying season; at other seasons the normal day's work ends at 6 o'clock. Two daj^s in the week the butter and eggs must be delivered to the station, so instead of both teams going into the field on these days one man with the lighter team starts about 7.30 o'clock a. m. for town, returning before noon. On the da}^ that the writer watched operations closely the other team began drawing hay shortly after 8 o'clock and had in two loads by 10.30. Of twelve loads brought in during the writer's visit, two were weighed. One had 2,1:00 pounds of ha}^ on it, the other 2,900. It is reasonably certain that the average was at least 2,500 pounds and all were taken off an area of not more than 5 acres, most of which had not been plowed for fifteen years. This shows a yield of approximately 3 tons to the acre and was made up wholly of fine grasses with clover mixed m, a most excellent quahty of dairy feed. The teams which do this work are of good size. One pair of mares weighs 2,700 pounds, the other pair, horses, 2,860 pounds. The single rake was drawn during the afternoon by the driving horse, consider- ably lighter in weight. As soon after haying as there is sufficient aftermath to furnish feed the cows are turned into the meadows, for the permanent pasture is then getting dry. Any newly seeded piece, however, is previously given a light coat of manure, which prevents the cows from grazing it down, and any other piece which would be hurt by grazing is treated likewise. The cornfield is shut off with a temporar}' wire fence. Some manure is spread occasionally even on the permanent pasture. FEED FOR THE COWS AND CALVES. As soon as the pasture gets dry and insufficient in the summer, and before the mowing land can be used, a suitable quantity of hay is fed to the cows ever}^ day, and later on the corn is fed out green. The roughage for winter feed is entirely of this mixed hay , which contains a large proportion of clover. The cows get, when m full milk, 8 pounds of grain a day, in two feeds. The grain is mixed, consisting of 1 part cotton seed meal, 2 parts ground corn, 2 parts ground oats, and 1 parts wheat bran. Skim milk is fed to the calves until they are more than a year old, and the surplus at all times is given to the milch cows. 102— u A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARM. 23 BUTTER PRODUCTION. The cows freshen during the fall, so that most of the butter is pro- duced ill the winter: fresh pasture conies on at such a time in th(^ ])»'riod of lactation as to prolong the flow of milk in the spring. The cows produce on an average a pound of l)utter each per day for three hun- dred days in the year— that is^ 30,000 pounds of butter from KX) cows in the course of a year. The ])utter is sold -as soon as made the year round to regular customers, mainly in New York City. The selling price is 35 cents, Mr. McDonald paying the express charges to the city. By the use of plenty of hay and skim milk for the calves as they grow up they are kept in vigorous shape and breed rather earlier than the average, so that many of the heifers are in milk at two years of age. POULTRY PRODUCTION. Four hundred of the 600 hens kept on the farm are housed in one long, cheaply constructed house. This house is divided so that approximately 50 hens are in eaili iiiclosure. The other 200 hens for breeding stock are kept in smaller ]icns in a separate location. RESULTS ACHIEVED. The gross receipts for a year for l)utter, eggs, and poultry, with occasionally a small quantity of hay sold, amount to $10,000 in round numbers. The annual expenses for grain are approximately |3,000; for labor, another §3,000. The debt on this farm in 1875 is said to have been $8,400, and to have been entirely cleared up in the twelve years following that date. The hay land has been cleared of stumps and stones, the buildings improved and added to (the dwelling house, barn, and dairy now having slate roofs), the mill and electric-light equipment have been put in, and the land rendered vastly more pro- ductive than it was in 1875. The orchard back of the house has been made more productive by general care, and especially by burying on the up-hill side of an apple tree any animal which died on the farm. In spite of the simplicity of its cropping system, this farm has been rendered so productive as to provide many of the comforts and con- veniences usually attributed to city life, and to maintain a large fam- il}'^ at the same time. 102—11 B. P. I.— 245. PLANNINC A CROPPING SYSTEM. By \V. J. Spillman, A(/rl<-iillnrift in Cluirgi- of Farm Mavngcment Lirestigadons. INTRODUCTION. One of the lines of work undertaken by the OfTice of Farm Manage- ment Investigations is the making of working plans for farms. Some of these plans are more or less general in character, representing sys- tems adapted to particular types of farms in definite soil and climatic areas. Others are made for individual farms. There are two principal reasons why work of this kind is under- taken. In the first place, very few farms have any definite crop])ing system, and it is comparatively easy to plan a system that will meet the requirements of the case and increase the farmer's income. We are thus able to render material service to a considerable number of farmers, whose farms in consequence become centers of local interest and serve as object lessons to the community. In the second place, the number of farms on which the full possibilities of a given type of farming are realized is exceedingly small; so small, in fact, that it is necessary to increase the number very materially ])efore many impor- tant problems relating to farm management can be solved. To illustrate: On the farm of Mr. W. IT. Rowe, described in Farm- ers' Bulletin No. 272," the possibilities of a given system of managing swine with a particular cropping system have been worked out. One litter of pigs a year is produced. These are pastured on clover in summer and fed sufficient grain to bring them to a weight of frorn 100 to 125 pounds by the end of the pasture season. In winter they are fed grain and soy bean hay. The next summer they return to the clover pasture, while the feeding of grain continues. About the 1st of August they are sold, weighing from 325 to 350 pounds each. This system utilizes the full possibilities of the clover pasture. The extra hogs during early summer consume the abundant growth of clover at that season, while the smaller number later find just about the amount of pasture they can utilize. With this system the farmer is able to sell an average of six large hogs a year for each acre in clover on the farm. This farm is in the North, where winter pasture is not available. The owner knew just what acreage of each crop to grow, and he knew approximately the quantity of grain and mill feed he would need during the year. This is the only instance thus far found in which a farm devoted to hog raising had its problems so fully worked out. 102— in a A Successful Hog and Seed-Corn Farm, 1906. 25 26 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Suppose, now, a hog farm is located far enough south to make \nn- ter pasture available, and that it is desired to produce 200-pound hogs. Fall litters of pigs may be given pasture and grain during winter and early summer, the grain being so apportioned as to cause the hogs to reach the desired weight, say, by the 1st of July. Spring litters may be given pasture and grain till autumn, and then penned and forced rapidly to a weight of 200 pounds. In such a system, on a farm of a given size, what acreage of winter pasture and of summer pasture should be provided? Wliat pasture crops should be used? How much grain should be fed? These are questions that can only be answered by experience. We are able to make estimates that will serve as approximate answers, but the experience of a considerable number of farms is necessary before these estimates can be relied on. There are similar questions that need to be worked out in connec- tion with nearly every type of farming for every section of the United States. One of the most important reasons why detailed plans are drawTi in this office for individual farms is, therefore, to enable us to find valual^le material for the study of the possibilities of the various types of farming. Among a large number of plans furnished, some will result in the development of farms to their full possibilities. Every such farm is an object lesson of great value. A large number of such farms would furnish data for generalizations of inestimable value. The number of distinct types of farming is large, and most farms combine two or more of these types. Even farms of exactly the same type — as, for instance, dairy farms that grow only roughage and buy all the concentrates — may and do have widely different cropping sys- tems. This is true even on contiguous farms of the same t}^e. This field of research is therefore a wide one. It relates in a most vital way to the development of the agricultural resources of the country. If properly pursued it can not fail to result in the accumulation of a vast number of important facts and principles which can be put into pedagogical form and thus become an important subject of instruc- tion in schools. In attempting to plan a cropping system to fit exactly the needs of a farm, the objection may be raised that this is impossible because of the great seasonal variation in yields. This objection overlooks the fact that every farmer in the United States is actually compelled to make such plans every year, whether they are feasible or not. There can be no two answers to the question whether we shall attempt to aid the farmer in this the most important work he has to do. If agricultural science is of any value at all it must aid the farmer in planning his work. With sufficient study, the ordinary fluctuations in yields become known quantities, and allowances can be made for them. When a farm is heavily stocked, it will occasionally occur 102— lU PLANNTN(i A CROPPING SYSTEM. 27 wcopmm that foed will run short. In such casos the onl}' resource is to buy, unless the farmer is willing to dispense witli a portion of his stock. It should be remembered that when a farmer is ])uying feed he is also buying fertility. One of the most successful farmers in this country says: "I usually keep enough stock to eat all 1 raise, and I usually take the chance of keeping a little more; for it does the farui no harm to buy a little feed if it is needed." FABM SELECTED TO ILLUSTRATE THE METHODS USED IN PLANNING A CROPPING SYSTEM. The plan selected to illustrate the methods used in arranging a cropping system to fit defmite conilitions is one recently drawn lur a farm in northern Illinois. The nuiu- ager had already determined approxi- mately the possil)ilities of this faru) under the particular type of farming he desired to follow. The number of conditions to be met was unusually large. Figure 1 shows the arrange- ment of the farm as it was presented to us. It will be seen that the arable land aggregates 103 acres. This is all good land, sloping in a fairly uniform manner to the south and west, sulli- ciently for drainage purposes. It was desired to keep about 25 cow^s, 5 to 15 head of horses (some of these to be kept for city owners), 50 to 60 hogs, and 100 hens. It was desired that a farmstead be reserved in the northwest corner of the arable portion. It was preferred that all the stock should be provided with pastiu"e. At the outset it was plain that ordinary permanent pastures for all this stock would occupy too much land.' It was therefore decided to provide more pro- ductive temporary pastures. The con- dition of the land justified the assump- tion of the following yields: Silage, 9 tons; hay, 2 tons; soiling corn, 7 tons. It was assumed that by feeding 5 pounds of hay or 20" pounds of soil- ing corn per head daily, the pasture could be made to carry 1 cow per acre. 102— m 48. 08 acres. 31.05 acTN. »«______— 23. 87 acres. Fig. 1.— Plan of farm as submitted by the manager for the recommendation of a suitable cropping system. 28 MISCELLATSTEOUS PAPERS. In order to ascertain the quantity of feed required annually, the following system of feeding was assumed: Cows. May lO-October 10. — One acre of pasture per head. (This pasture will be second- year timothy and clover meadow.) May 10-August 10. — Five pounds of hay, with pasture. August 10-October 10. — Twenty pounds daily of soiling com or silage with pasture. October 10-May 10. — The average ration for dry and oihitr cows is silage, 40 pounds; hay, 10 pounds; grain, 4 pounds. Bulls. May 10-August 10. — Silage, 25 pounds; hay, 15 pounds; grain, 4 pounds. Augu.«t 10-OctoVjer 10.— Soiling crops. 25 pounds; hay, 15 pounds; grain, 4 pounds. October 10-May 10. — Silage, -30 pounds; hay, 18 pounds; grain, 4 pounds. Yearlings. May 1-October 1. — Pasture, with 5 pounds of hay daily. October 1-31. — Pasture, with 25 pounds f»f rape daily. November 1-30. — Hay, 12 pounds, and rape, 30 pounds, daily. December 1- April 30. — Hay, 10 pounds, and silage, 25 pounds, daily. Calves. First four months, an average of 15 pounds of milk, 5 pounds of hay, and 1 pound of grain daily. (This is a lil>eral allowance.; Five months, pasture, with 5 pounds of hay daily. One month, pasture, with 10 pounds of rape daily. Two months, hay, 9 pounds, and silage, 15 pounds, daily. • Horses. An average of 18 pounds of hay and 6 pounds of grain daily throughout the year. This is an overestimate, since some of the horses will be at jjasturc part of the time, but the number of horses in winter will exceed the number in summer. Besides, it is well to have a reserve of feed in case of short crops. Hoys. The system of feeding hogs was assumed to be that used on the farm described in Farmers' Bulletin No. 272, already referred to. These two farms are in the same sec- tion and on soil of the same type. The Rowe system was also used, because it is the Iinly one for which accurate data are at hand and which is adapted to the section in que.stifm. The followiiif^ talkie gives the Jiumber of stock and the quantity of each kind of food required, together with the yields per acre and the number of acres of each class of crops: Number of live stock. Silage. Hay. Soiling. « Grain. Rape. Pasture. ?5 cows Twin. 107 9 Tone. 34 6 33 15 2 Tons. 15 2 Tons. 10.7 1.46 10.95 .39 35.40 Acres. Acres. 25 2 bulls . . 10 horses 10 1.3 vouncT stock . . 15 I 0.52 6 sows 5 48 pigs ) Total 1.31 9 90 2 17 7 58.90 .52 40 Yield to the acre . Acres 14.6 45 2.43 .52 40 102— m PLANNING A CROPPING SYSTEM. 29 From the proccdins: table it is seen that the following acreages are required: Cum, 14.0 + 2.43 = 17.03; hav. 45; pasture, 40; and rape, 0.52: a total of 102.55 acres. The problem now is to arrange these acreages into suitable rotations. The fact that the cows need 25 acres of pasture suggests one rota- tion on fields of 25 acres each. A part of one of these fiekls may also furnish pasture for the horses. The further fact that the hogs require 5 acres of clover pasture suggests another rotation on 5-acre fields. Since the necessary acreage is practically the whole of the arable land it will be necessary to double-crop a few acres in order to secmv space for the farmstead. No estimate of pasture for young stock is inchuleil in the table. Since it is desirable to keep about half as numy of these as there are mature cows, in order to nuiintain a high degree of effi- ciency in the herd, it happens that the tract of 1 1 .77 acres of wot)dland pasture north of the road just about sufiices for the young stock. THE ROTATIONS ADOPTED. A careful consideration of the conditions specified and of the many different possible rotations led to the adoi)tit)n of one three-year rota- tion as follows: First year. 7 acres of corn and IS acres of peas anil oats; second year, timothy and clover; thirtl year, timothy and clover. This rotation requires that timothy and cUiver be sown in the 7 acres of corn at the last cultivation, a conunon practice in New Fngland and a successful practice on several farms in Iowa, Missouri, and other Western States. Timothy and clover are also to be sown either with the peas anil oats, or immediately after the latter are harvested for hay. The third year of this rotation furnishes the necessary pastiu'e for the cows; the second year furnishes the required 10 acres of pasture for the horses and 15 acres for hay. This will require a temporary fence, which, however, is entirely feasible. In case the seeding of grass fails, rye may be sown after the corn in the fall, to be followed by soy beans for hay the next summer. If the seeding of grass after the peas and oats fails, winter wheat sliould be sown on the land needed for horse pasture. Tliis will fm-nish good pasture throughout the summer, as the wheat will not stool until late in the fall or early the next spring. The remainder of the pea and oat land may very properly be planted to sorghum for hay. The next year the whole 25 acres may be sowti in winter wheat m the spring, to be used by the cows for pasture during the summer. To secure the 5 acres of clover for the hogs, in a rotation in which the remainmg crops are useful, the following three-year rotation was arranged: First year, com, in which clover is sown at the last culti- vation; second year, clover; third year, peas and oats for hay, fol- lowed by rape sown in midsummer. 102—111 30 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS, IVOOOL/IND PASTURe jm acres " 3ofres ^Sorrei CO/>N. Ciove/> fifMand OATS ^ Sacres~ CORN. /fye + SOY BE/INS. ^Socrrs- ClOi/£R PEASand OMTS ■^ftAPt CORN. PfASaiK OATS JtMP£ CORN. aovcR. S 25 aerrs. St acres CORN \aacres PEAS and 0/rrS TlMOrm and CLOVER. TIMOTHY and CtOVEP. C Socres. ffYE-ySOYBEAm COHN. ZSacrtS. This rotation permits more rape to be growTi than is strictly needed, but the extra quantity can be utiHzed by the pigs and calves. If the seeding of clover in the corn fails, sow winter wheat in half of it in the autumn. Pasture this wheat down the next spring, and follow it by sorghum for hog pasture, turning the hogs in on the sorghum when it is about 18 inches high. The other half of the land should be planted to ^^■inter wheat in the spring. This will furnish good pasture for hogs throughout the summer. These two rotations occupy 90 acres of land, and furnish 12 acres of corn, 38 acres of hay, 5 acres of rape, and all the pasture needed. There are still needed 5 acres of com and 7 acres of hav. Reserving 3 acres for the farmstead, 10 acres on which to grow these crops are left. The e\4dent solu- tion of this problem lies in a two-field rotation of com, 5 acres, followed by a double crop of hay the next year. Fortunately, the farm described in Farmers' Bulletin No. 272 has sho%vn tha^t soy beans are not only an excellent hay crop in that section, but that they may be planted as late as the last week in June. This fact suggests rye as a winter hay crop. Only 2 acres of this need be used for hay, since only 7 acres of hay are needed and the soy beans furnish 5 acres. The remaining 3 acres of rye will be convenient for bedding. Accordingly, the following two-year rotation was laid out for two 5-acre fields: First year, com, followed by fall-sown rye; second year, rye, followed by soy beans. It now remains to fit these three rotations into the arable land. Figure 2 shows the final result. This arrangement permits a single road to reach every field on the farm. The peculiar outline of the farm makes this road rather long, but it would be hard to avoid this slight difficulty. Fields G, H, and I, figure 2, are to be devoted to the three-year rota- tion consisting of 7 acres of corn and 18 acres of peas and oats the first TIMOTHY^aOVER {jdc/rsCVRN. \8otrftPEAsrarrs. TiMOTNr/aoYe/i. H 2S acres. T/MOrNfandCLOVER. TIMOTHY and CLOVER. \ 7 acres CORN \/e acres f>£ASandO/fTS. Fig. 2. — Final arrangement of the several fields, showing the cropping system recommended. 102-'IU PLANNING A <'K<)PPIN(i SYST?:M. 31 year, followed by timothy and clover left down two years. The other three-year rotation on 5-acre fields may bo run on any three of the fields B, C, D, E, and F, with the two-year rotation on the remaining two. The farmstead occupies the 3 acres in subdivision A. This gives room for a tenant house, barn, chicken house, and a small garden. On receiving the above plans, the manager of this farm wrote: ''I have carefully read your suggestions as to the field arrangements of the farm and the plan of operation. I do not see why I can not carry out every suggestion to the letter." The results of the operation of this plan will be carefully studied by this office. It will be seen that some features of the jilan are some- what experimental, at least for that locality. Other features are based on successful practice on near-by farms. ARRANGEMENT OF CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR FARMS. It is hoped that ultimately it will be possible by the study of farm practice on the best farms to arrange rotations in all parts of the country based entirely on successful local practice. While this office can not undertake to furnish detailed plans for an indefinite number of individual farms, at the same tim<3 we desire the opportunity to do a considerable amount of this work, in order that we may test the possibilities of certain types of farming and enlarge the number of highly successful farms, so that we may have more material for the study of farm management. Ultimately it is hoped to formulate generahzed plans for farms of various types in all sections of the coun- try, and to make these plans available in our publications. 4859— No. 101'— 07 3 B. P. I.— 246. THE Al'l'LICATlOX OP VEGETATIM: PROPAGATION TO PEGL'MIXOUS P'ORAGE PLANTS." By J. M. \\'E.sT(i.\TE, Assistant Agroslologist in Charge of Alfalfa and Clover Introduc- tion, Forage Crop Investigations, and George W. Oliver, Plant Propagator, Seed and Plant Introduction Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The practical (UfTiciilties which have presented themselves in connection with the development of improved strains of peremiial forage plants have been such as to retard the progress of the work. The necessity for isolation to prevent promiscuous pollination and the time required to secure any considerahle quantity of seed have together served to handicap seriously the work of developing new strains of forage plants, especially the perennial legumes. The method of propagating forage plants by means of cuttings herein described has been worked out chiefly in connection with Medicago sativa and Trifolium pratense, but preliminary experiments indicate that it may be quite as successfully adapted to all dicotyledonous forage plants. Among the species which have been successfull}^ pro- pagated in this manner may be mentioned Medicago sativa, Melilotus officinalis, M. alba, Trifolium pratense, and T. repens. B}^ using the offsets or innovations the method is also applicable to grasses. A number of problems in comiection with the self -sterility of the different species in question demand further attention. It is hoped that the method here suggested will stimulate the work of developing varieties of forage crops throughout the country. a In the summer of 1903 a plot of Peruvian alfalfa (S. P. I. No. 9.303) in the gi'ass garden of the Department of Agi-iculture proved resistant to the leaf-spot disease {Pseudopeziza medicaginis), which nearly ruined the check plot of ordinary alfalfa. Although this strain is nonhardy and ordinarily winterkills except in the southern portions of the United States, there were two plants which survived the severe winter of 1903M in AYashington, D. C. These points, together with the hairiness, leafiness, and vigorous growth of this variety, brought it to the attention of those interested in breeding alfalfa. These plants were placed in large pots and moved to the green- house to be utilized in the hybridization work inaugurated by Dr. B. T. Galloway. Later on Doctor Galloway conceived the idea of raising a large number of plants of these two individuals vegetatively, in order to produce a large quantity of seeds the same season. This was successfully accomplished by the method here described. The adaptation of this method to the breeding of forage crops, especially the legumes, has proved so promising that it is deemed advisable to publish the results ob- tained. — C. V. Piper, Agroslologist in Charge of Forage Crop Investigations. 102— IV 33 34 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD EMPLOYED IN THE VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. The method, as here described, apphes specifically to alfalfa. Slight modifications miay be necessary in case of its application to other species. The cuttings should be made about three inches in length, prefer- abl}^ from the upper portion of reasonably matured stems. Plants gro^vn outside the greenhouse produce the best cuttings, but in case the stock plants are not near at hand it is generally advisable to transplant them to the greenhouse, cutting the stems back close to the ground. Such plants will give an abundance of good material for cuttings \vithin two weeks. It is practicable, when the cutting material is limited in quantity, to utilize also the middle and lower portions of the stem. In any case, two or three nodes should be included in each cutting, the lower being near the base to facilitate rooting. It is possible to secure a second set of cuttings from the original ones when they have grown to twice their original height, usually about three weeks after potting. The upper cuttings of the original stem are best adapted to this second series of cuttings, as the terminal growth is not interrupted. (PI. I, fig. 1.) The slips should be inserted in sand (PL I, fig. 2) and when the largest roots are three-fourths of an inch in length thev should be transferred to 2-mch pots, and later on to 3-inch pots. (PL II, fig. 1.) The size which the plants can attain in such pots without becoming pot-bound will permit them to be transplanted to the permanent nursery rows, if the season be suitable, or to an outside cold frame (PL II, fig. 2), to remain dormant till spring, in case the cuttings are made during the winter. Greenhouse facilities are desirable, though not essential. It is possible with 30 square feet of greenhouse space and 90 square feet of cold frames to secure, during a single winter, 1,000 plants from an alfalfa plant of average size. In the northern portions of the L'nited States the conditions of the weather ma}^ be too severe to permit of transfer to outside cold frames. In the south- ern portion of the country cold frame protection may not be neces- sary, but some means should be adopted to protect the plants from other sources of danger until they can be permanently transplanted. The efficiency of the method is shown by the fact that at least 95 per cent of alfalfa cuttings become well rooted in the pots. The newly potted cuttings should be watered sparingly and shaded from direct sunlight for the first two days. Wliere it has been necessary to transfer the plants to cold frames at Washington, D. C, in mid- winter, the loss has been as high as 10 per cent, owing to the sudden change of temperature. Cloth protection is recommended, as the plants, havmg been grown in the greenhouse, are likely to be tender. 102— IV Bui. 102, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate III Fig. 1.— Cuttings of Peruvian Alfalfa Before and After Rooting. I «-.. ■zs:j&'*^'- ilMt^i 111 M> » ^ k >^ TirA Fig. 2.-CUTTINGS of Peruvian Alfalfa Rooted in Sand in Greenh OUSE. Bui. 102. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. Fig. 1.— Potted Cuttings of Peruvian Alfalfa in Greenhouse. Fig. 2.— Potted Cuttings of Peruvian Alfalfa in Cold Frames. Bui. 102. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate V. VEGETATIVE TROPAGATION OF LEOUMTNOTTS FORAGE PLANTS. 85 No losses resulted on one occasion in the transfer of l.SOO plants to the permanent nursery rows 5 miles distant. The tops were cut back to 6 inches in height before being removed from the pots in the cold frames. (See PI. Ill, figs. 1 and 2.) APPLICATION OF THE METHOD TO PRACTICAL PLANT-BREEDING PROBLEMS. In connection with establishing new varieties of such leguminous forage plants as alfalfa and clover it is sometimes desirable to start with a strain from a single individual, or at best from a limited number of individuals. This is the case where an especially prom- ising form is confined to so few plants that the problem of increasing the stock for further tests and possible introduction is a serious one. In work of this kind many difficulties have heretofore been encoun- tered. The seed selected from a promising set of individuals in an ordinary nursery or testing plot ma}' have as its male ])arents plants of all of the strains in the series mider test, a circumstance which works against the fixing of the strain along the desired lines. This promiscuous parentage can usually be avoided only by keep- ing the remainder of the plants clipped to prevent flowering. This is not practicable in case other strains are being developed at the same time. \Vliile it is possible to isolate several hundred plants so that the danger of outside pollination is for the most part eliminated, yet with a few plants this is much less satisfactory, as there is not the protection of numbers which a considerable area of plants of one strain gives. The several hundred plants which can readily be pro- duced from the selected individuals during the winter can be isolated by transfer to a considerable distance from other plants of the same or closely related species. It is possible that a considerable area could be practically isolated by lateral screens to confine the fer- tilizing insects temporarily to the plants in question. Under these conditions the presence of great numbers will make it probable that the bulk of the seed secured wdll have the selected individuals for its male parents. The quantity of seed procm'able from a few plants is usually so small that several seasons are required to obtain sufficient stock for even the preliminary tests of the new strain under field conditions. But by using cuttings it is quite practicable to produce in the green- house as many plants from one individual during the fu'st winter as would be expected in at least two years from seed. Therefore this method results in a considerable shortening of the time required to get the seed of any one selected strain in sufficient quantities for field tests. In practical selection work where strams resistant to cold, drought, or disease are being developed, natural selection will weed out the 102-lV 36 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. undesirable plants. In these cases the method suggested by Hays « is most practicable. In case, however, the selections are being made along different lines, as for yield, leafiiiess, or composition, there can be no natural elimmation of the undasirable individuals. Ai-tificial elimination in many cases is tedious, as, for instance, when selection for composition is in progress. The method here described will enable fixed strams to be secured in a much shorter time than where the seed is influenced by pollen from inferior individuals. In cases where there is at hand but a single individual of a given strain its possible destruction hj accident may be guarded against by mcreasing the stock, as here suggested. If the prelimmary tests show it to be of probable value, the question of seed production can then be considered. The transplanting of matured alfalfa plants is difficult, owing to their great root development. It is much more expedient to make cuttings to the required number and transplant these to the desired location. In experimental tests, such as fertihzer pot trials with smgle plants, it is well known that the individual variations of the different plants utilized is a varying factor, for which it is difficult to make correc- tions. This factor is practically elimmated where the plants under test are produced by cuttings from a single individual. It is sug- gested that in fertilizer tests, for instance, where pots or even small plots are used, the experiments can be rendered less liable to error by utilizing freshly rooted cuttings of a single mdividual for the entire series of experiments. In view of the bearing which the self-fertility of a given species has upon the application of the method to starting a strain from a single mdividual, a list of self-sterile and self-fertile plants is here given. This list is from Kirchner,^ based in part upon his own work and, in part, upon that of others. Those plants listed as self-sterile failed to set seed when the inflorescence was bagged, while the self- fertile species produced seed when similarly covered. Self-sterile.— Uedic&go sativa, M. falcata, Trifolium pratense, T. hybridum, Vicia cracca, V. angustifoha, V. villosa. Self-fertile.— UeMlotus alba, Medicago carstiensis, M. denticulata, Trifolium repens (slightly), T. incarnatum (slightly), Ornithopus sativus, Cicer arietinum, Vicia sativa, V. faba. Lens esculenta, Lathyrus sativus, L. tingitanus, Pisum sativum, Glycuie hispida, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna sinensis. oHays, W. M. A Method of Breeding a Hardy Alfalfa. American Breeders' Association, vol. 1, 1905. b Kirchner. Q. Ueber die Wirkung der Selbstbestaubung bei den Papilionaceen. Naturw. Zeitschrift fiir Land und Forstwirthschaft, parts 1, 2, and 3, 1905. Digest in Bot. Centralbl., Vol. XCVIII, No. 18, p. 449, 1905. 102— IV - VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF LEGirMINOUS FORAGE PLANTS. 37 The behavior of any species under continued inbreeding will deter- mine the miniimun number of plants which can be utilized as the foundation stock for a given strain. It is, of course, impossible to start with a single individual in case it is absolutely sterile to its own pollen. It may be, however, that the differentiation incident to vege- tative propagation permits the use of pollen of plants derived from the same individual. If this last condition does not obtain, the employ- ment of at least two individuals is essential. These should, of course, be as nearly identical as possible with regard to the desired character- istics. The legumes are variable in respect to self-pollination, and unfortu- nately there still remains a great deal of work to be done in this direc- tion, as many of the early experiments were not performed under as rigid conditions as might be wi.shed. It is pr()ba])le that many flowers failing to set seed wiien bagged fail not l)ecause they are sterile to their own pollen, but because of abnormal conditions incident to the bagging. A series of experiments is in progress to determine whether a number of the species of legumes usually regarded as self-sterile are not to a certain extent self-fertile, at least to pollen from other por- tions of the same i)lant or from another plant produced from a cutting from the same individual. 102— IV B. r. I.— 261. THE CONTROL OF TEXAS ROOT-ROT OF COTTOX." Bv C. L. Shear, Pttlholot/ist, ami CiEORciK F. Mii.ks, Srimtijir Assistant In I'lilhologi/. INTRODUCTION. Root-rot, or the so-callod 'clyin^^" of cotton, is each year becommg a more and more serious enemy of the cotton grower in Texas and other parts of the Southwest. It has not yet been found east of Texas, but it is likely to spread gradually eastward. The extent of its dam- age to the cotton crop during the past season (1906) was apparently o-reater than ever before. It has been estimated that the total loss caused by this disease in Texas last year was about S3,000,000. Dur- ing seasons favorable to the development of the parasite it increases its area of destruction quite rapidly. Some cotton planters have expressed the opinion that this disease is at present a more serious menace to the cotton crop of Texas than the l)oll weevil. Root-rot is not restricted to cotton, but attacks a large number of other cultivated and wild plants. CAUSE OF ROOT-ROT. The disease has been attributed by j^lanters to a variet}^ of causes. Our investigations have shown, however, that it is primarily due to a fungous parasite which lives and spreads in the soil. This fimgus is known as a species of Ozonium and is most prevalent and mjurious in the Houston clay or black waxy soils of the Southwest. Under favor- able conditions of temperature and moisture, the fungus attacks the roots of the cotton plants, destroying the rootlets and external surface of the roots and also invading the fibro-vascular system, thus causing the plants to suddenly wilt and die. This organism grows best where the aeration of the soil is poorest. The disease may be easily recog- nized by the sudden wilting and dying of the plants and the presence on the loots of dirty yellowish strands or a thm weft of the fungous filaments. oThe results of the field experiments conducted by Doctor Shear and Mr. Miles last season (1906) were so promising that it is deemed desirable to present them to cotton growers at once. Further time will be required to complete the investigations and demonstrate more exactly the value of the method recommended. — B. T. Gallo- way, Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau. 102— V 89 40 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. EFFORTS TO CONTROL THE DISEASE. Our investigation of this disease, including the tests of possible methods of prevention or control, is not yet complete. A consider- able variety of tests has been made in the application of various fungicides and other chemicals and fertilizers to the soil, and attempts have also been made to secure by selection a race or variety of cotton that might be immune or show some degree of resistance to the dis- ease. Neither of these lines of investigation has yet given promise of success. ROTATION OF CROPS. It is generally knowTi to planters familiar with root-rot that it does not affect grasses and grains, and when such crops are grown upon infected land for a few years the succeeding cotton crop is not likely to siiffer so badly. The beneficial results from such rotations alone are, however, not always uniform or satisfactory. AERATION OF THE SOIL BY DEEP PLOWING. Field and laboratory investigations, coupled w^th the experience of practical growers, have led the writers to conclude that lack of pro]>er aeration of the soil is one of the most important factors favor- ing the development of the root-rot fungus. Deeper plowing than that usually practiced in ordinary cultivation methods improves the aeration of the soil and was therefore tried. Three series of experiments were conducted, consisting of (1) deep fall plowing, the land being plowed to a depth of 7 td^O inches on December 7 and 8, 1905, (2) deep spring plowing, and (3) spring subsoiling. DEEP FALL PLOWIXG. ' The experiment in deep fall plowing was carried on near Luling, Tex. An area was selected where the cotton was nearly all killed by the root-rot during the previous season. Three acres of tliis field were plowed 7 to 9 inches deep ; the remainder was given the ordinary preparation and cultivation, being simply bedded up with a "middle buster" in the spring. The cotton on both plats was planted at the same time and treated in the same mamier during the season. On October 25, 1906, by an actual count of the plants in 15 rows of each plat, representing the average condition, onl}^ 12 per cent of the plants on the deep-plowed plat were found to be dead, while on the check plat adjoining, which had received ordinary preparation, 96 per cent of the plants had been killed by the disease. 102— V THE CONTROL OF TEXAS ROOT-ROT OF COTTON. 41 DEEP SPRING PLOWING AND SUBSOILING. The results of the deep sprin<]j pUnvinj; and subsoiUng were not so satisfactory, though there was a very noticeable benefit from this treatment. The plants on the subsoiled land showed much less rot than those on the land which was plowed deep. The cotton was noticeably larger and more productive on all the treated plats, and especially on that which was subsoiled. The accompanying illustration of our experimental plat at Petty, Tex., from a photograph taken October 10, 1906, shows on the left root-rot-infected land treated by spring subsoiling and on the right Fig. 3.— Cotton field badly infested with the root-rot. showing the result of spring subsoiling. The plat at the left, subsoiled, shows the cotton mostly alive, and the plat on the right, prepared in the ordinary way, shows the cotton nearly all dead. the chedc plat which received ordinary preparation. The contrast was not so great, however, throughout the whole area. It was impossible to obtain satisfactory photographs of the plats treated by deep fall plowing, as the leaf worm had destroyed the foliage. TREATMENT RECOMMENDED. The benefit derived from deep fall plowing is so remarkable that it seems desirable to call the attention of cotton growers to this method of controlling the root-rot. The deep fall plowing should 102-.V 42 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. be combmed \vitli rotation of crops, using, for two or three years previous to planting cotton on tbe land, some of the grasses or grains best adapted to the requirements of the particular locality. This course has proved most practicable and successful in combating this disease. In order to attain success by this method the plomng must be very thoroughly done and at the proper time. Good results can not be secured unless the land is plowed to a depth of at least 7 inches, and 9 inches would be still better. This work cannot be done ^\iih. the small plows in general use by cotton planters. A good disk plow or a 12 to 14 inch plow of the ordinary form must be used. In the experiments of the writers the plomng was done early in December. We believe it would be better to do it in November, as the soil would have a greater opportunity to become aerated; but if it is impossible to do the plowing in the fall it should be done during the winter or early spring. 102— V H. I'. I.— 271. THE HISTORY OF THE COWPEA A\l) ITS IXTRO- DUCTION IXTO AMERICA." By W. F. WiciiT, Amsldnt Botnniat, Tajonoinic Inrestlyations. INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this paper '' is to give a brief history of the intro- duction of the phmt known as the cowpea (Vir/na inif/uiri/Idta) into America, to establisli as nearly as possible the time at which it was introduced, and to ascertain the region to which it is native. oAlthoush the cowpen is the fhiof locriiminous rrop of tlip southern Ignited States, the most diverse and often erroneous ideas prevail in regard to its geo- graphic origin and the time and means of its introduction into American agri- culture. It has been maintained by some, for example, that it is a native of tropical America ; by others, that it was brought from Africa by the negro slaves, and by still others that it was introduced by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. Because of the bearing of the question on certain introduction and breeding experiments with cowpeas. Mr. A. J. Pieters, then in charge of the seed intro- duction and distribution work of the Department, started an inquiry into the subject, intrusting the work to Mrs. K. S. Bort, who made extensive extracts from the literature of cultivated plants. So many questions arose, however, requiring the consideration of a botanist trained in the critical discrimination of plants and with a wide knowledge of botanical literature, that Mr. W. F. Wight was assigned to the task. He has made a thorough investigation of the history of the cowpea, and in the accompanying paper has brought forward proofs of the principal points in that history, namely, that the cowpea is a native of the Afghanistan region; that it was introduced into the West Indies over two hundred years ago, and that it subsequently was brought to the Amer- ican mainland, gradually extending northward until, about 1797, it reached the latitude of the Potomac and attracted the attention of such a keen agriculturist as Washington himself. — Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge of Taxonomio Investigations. 6 The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. Frederick V. Coville for Latin and Greek translations and for many suggestions ; to the Chinese Legation for translation from the Chinese ; to Mr. S. Stefansson, of the Library of Congress, for translation of Arabic ; and to Mr. C. M. Mansfield, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, for photographs. 102— VI 43 44 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. The conclusions which have been drawn are, briefly, that it was introduced into the West Indies during the latter half of the seven- teenth century and probably reached the mainland during the first half of the eighteenth century; that it is a native of India and the region northwestward to the southern part of the trans-Caspian district ; that its cultivation in that region is of ancient date ; that its cultivation extended to China at a very early period ; that it was known in Arabia and Asia Minor as early as the beginning of the Christian era, and was cultivated in at least one of the countries of southern Europe at about the same time, but that its introduction into central Europe was of much later date and entirely independent of its introduction into southern Europe. HISTORY. The nativity of several economic plants that have been in cultiva- tion for a very long period is extremelj^ difficult of determination. This difficulty is especially great in the case of the cowpea {Vigna unguiculata) , because of its similarity to some other leguminous plants likewise in cultivation for several centuries, and the vague Avay in which these plants were described or alluded to by early authors. It is evident from the statements of these authors that more than one bean-like plant was in cultivation in southern Europe before the discover}'- of America. It may be inferred also that at least one of these plants bore a close resemblance to the common or kidney bean « (Phaseolus vulgaris)^ since this species was introduced into Europe Avithout apparently receiving the attention that a plant more unlike any known to them would have attracted. The statements regard- ing the origin of maize, for instance, are much more definite than those concerning the species of beans. Many of the botanical authors wM) wrote during the century following the discovery of America and the introduction of American species into Europe, like their predecessors, sought to identify the beans cultivated at the time they wrote with the bean-like plants described by Theophrastus and Dios- corides. This tendency is doubtless at least partly responsible for their failure to distinguish clearly the species then cultivated. De Candolle, in the " Origin of Cultivated Plants," while doubting the identity of Phaseolus vulgcn^s with any of the plants known to the ancients, after discussing the origin of the words applied to P. vul- garis in several European languages, says (p. 339) : " Nevertheless, a In this paper the expression " the common bean " is not used to designate any particular one of the many garden varieties of Phaseolus vuhjaris, but is applied to all the forms of the species. The term "kidney bean" is used by the English and " haricot bean " by the French in the same sease. 102— VI THE HISTORY OF THE COWPEA. 45 (he (lolichofi of Thooplirastus has been definitely referred [by other authors] to the s<F THE roWPKA. 49 name, and it is preserved at the jjresent tlay in the form '" galavant " as the name of one of the varieties of the cowpea. The four kinds mentioned hy Josselyn, Kh.") (\"()ya- alonii' upon the <2:round; so far short Avas the ground then of being cleared," No description is given by which the name can be identified with a particular species, and its applica- tion can only be inferred from its later use by other authors. Sloane, 1696 (Cat. ri. Jam., 67, 68), and 1707 (Nat. Hist. Jam., 1:177), uses bonavist for DoUcIiok laJAah. The " Buona vista" of Hughes, 1750 (Nat. Hist. liarbadoes), is also certainly Dolichofi hihlah. Wherever the word "bonavist" in its various forms occurs with an identifiabh' description it refers to Dol'ichos hibhtJ). Josselyn's '* ca- lavances," like that of William Hughes, is probably a plant with pinnate leaves. Certainly no variety of Y'lgna viiyiiiculata then known would nuiture seeds in New Enghind. The " kidney-bean that is proper to Ivonoake "' may be either the Lima bean, the scarlet run- ner, or one of the numerous varieties of the kidne}'^ bean. The " bushel bean " of Lawson is j^robably Phaseolus lunatus. Sturtevant, 1885 (Amer. Nat., 11): 454), has suggested that the " Indian rounceval, or miraculous peas," may have been Dolichos sesqulpedalis^ but it would have been more natural for an English- man to have applied the term to a plant more nearly resembling the English rounceval. Law^son's " bonavis " is doubtless Dolichos JoMah^ but " ealavancies " and " nanticokes " are scarcely identi- fiable, though the latter is probably one of the various forms of the kidne}^ bean. Brickell gives nearly the same description of bushel bean and Indian rounceval as found in Lawson; in fact, the word- ing is so familiar that it is without much doubt copied from the earlier author. There is less doubt, however, regarding the " Cali- vances " of Brickell. They resembled the bonavis, except that they were not so flat. This clearly refers to some other plant than a Vicia or Lathyrus, and though it can not be identified from the descriptions, it must be either a form of Phaseolus vulgaris or perhaps the red- seeded form of Vigna unguiculata, the " callavance " of Sloane. Jamaica was captured by the British in 1655, and possession was confirmed by treaty in 1670. William Hughes (The American Phy- sician, etc., published in 1672), describes several plants cultivated in 302— VI 50 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Jamaica, but does not include Vigna tmguiculata, his calavance, as noted above, being a different plant. If Vigna unguiculata had been cultivated in Jamaica at that time it would probably have been men- tioned with the other cultivated legumes Hughes described. Sloane visited the island in 1687, remaining fifteen months, and found both the red and white seeded forms, and it is therefore very probable that they reached Jamaica some time between the years 1672 and 1687. Any plant that had been found valuable in Jamaica would no doubt soon be tried in the southern colonies, for the early accounts of the colonies indicate that they frequently obtained seeds of new plants for trial. The Georgia colony even sent a man to the Spanish West Indies to secure new plants (Francis Moore, 1744, A Voyage to Georgia, Georgia Historical Society, 1840, 1:99). It is therefore possible that even the calavance of Lawson, 1714, is F. nngniculata. The statement of Brickell, 1737 (Natural History of North Carolina), that these jilants were in America before the arrival of the Europeans can scarcely be taken seriously, for he makes it on the authority of the settlers and Indians who would easily confuse plants so similar in appearance as Vigna unguiculata and Phaseolus vulgaris. The ex- portations of peas mentioned by some of the early historians probably refer to English peas, as Lawson, 1714 (Hist. Carolina, 130, 131), says English peas " have been made trial of " and " yield very well." The first unmistakable reference to the occurrence of Vigna un- guiculata on the mainland of America appears in Romans (1775), Natural History of East and West Florida, 122, where the author says: " Pease, as the}' are here called but improperh', because species of the Phaseolus and Dolichos are meant, follow the maize in utility. It is well known that most people use them like European pease either green or dry, and some kinds, such as the small white sort, the bona- vist, cuckolds increase, the white black-eyed pea, the white crowder, and many others, are undoubtedly at least as good." The " small white sort " is doubtless a white variety of the common bean ; bona- vist probably refers to Dolichos lahlah. " Cuckolds increase " is ap- plied by Patrick Brown, 1756 (Natural History of Jamaica, 292), to a species which he says resembles his seventh species, " Phaseolus erectus major," Sloane, Avhich is Vigna unguiculata. Lunan, 1814 (Hortus Jamaicensis, 1 : 434) , ssijs the " cuckolds increase " " seems to be a species of dolichos, as does the bonavist." The white black- eyed pea is undoubtedly identical also with the black-eyed pea of Jamaica, another common form of Vigna unguiculata. The " white crowder " does not appear to be described by either Sloane or Brown. With the exception of the " small white sort " and the " white crow- der " the names given by Romans were also given by Brown nineteen years earlier, and by Lunan thirty-nine years later, and the fact that 102— VI THK HISTORY OF THE COWPEA. 51 the names " calavance," " bonavist," " cuckolds increase," and " black- eyed pea " all appear in the natural history literature of (he West Indies earlier than they occur in the accounts of the American colonies indicates that they came from the West Indies to the mainland. Lunan, 1814 (Ilortus Jamaicensis, 1:1GT), under " Dolichos " says: " Resides the above indi«renous species, three exotic ones have been in- troduced, the lablab, of which arbours are made in the East; the siTte7if, beans, jjotatoes, and turnips, our lands yield them very W(>11, but as they are not raised for market in general I ean not say w liat may be their average i»roduct per aere. It has ever appeared to nie that if the farmers in EiU'ope. who lay so much stress upon these articles in their writings, had our excellent substitute for them, Indian corn, they would only regard them as we do, for culinary purposes. Washington was accustomed to growing seeds of new^ plants that might prove of agricultural value, and there are frequent references in his correspondence to seeds which had come from England or other countries and of which he wished the gardener to take particu- lar care. The following are mentioned in Washington's correspond- ence, besides the staj^le crops of corn, wheat, etc. : Lucern, sainfoin, India hemp, buckAvheat, furze, flax, white bent-grass, everlasting peas, and English field peas. It was Washington's practice, sometimes, at least, to plant potatoes with corn, since in a rotation of crops recorded in " George Washing- ton and Moimt Vernon," edited by M. D. Conway, 287, 1889, " Indian corn, with intermediate rows of potatoes, or any root more certain or useful (if such there be) that will not impede the plough, hoe, or harrow^ in the cultivation of the corn," is given for one crop of the rotation. There is apparently no reference in any letter of Washing- ton to the cultivation of peas or beans with corn. He used buck- wheat as a green manure. The first reference by Washington to the cow]:)ea is in a letter to Landon Carter, of Cleve, dated Philadelphia, :27th February, 1797, 102— VI 52 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. in which he says : " I hope, as the season is approaching fast when the ground should be prepared for it, that you have informed Mr. James Anderson (my manager) in a letter directed to the care of the post- master in Alexandria, at what time he may send for the peas you were so obliging as to promise me ;" and the following from a letter of James Anderson to Landon Carter, which accompanied the above letter of Washington. " I have only to add to that wrote by the President — that the sooner you have 40 bushels of the White Indian j>ease, with black eyes — ready, you will the more oblige the Presi- dent, I do not wish any of the small kind either the round kind called the Gentlemen pease, nor of the other small kind which resemble the large."' Jefferson, 1801 (Notes on the State of Virginia), makes no mention of peas or beans, although he enumerates the cultivated plants (p. 58) , saying — Our farms produce wheat, rye. barley, oats, buckwheat, broom corn, and Indian corn. The climate suits rice well enough, where the lands do. Tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton, are staple commodities. Indigo yields two cuttings. The silk-worm is a native, and the mulberiy, proper for its food, gi'ows kindly. We cultivate also potatoes, both the long and the round, turnips, carrots, parsnips, pumpkins, and ground nuts (Arachis). Our grasses are lucerne, St. foin, burnet, timothy, ray and orchard grass ; red, white, and yellow clover ; greenswerd, blue grass, and crab grass. The gardens yield musk-melons, water-melons, tomatos, okra, pomegranates, figs, and the esculent plants of Europe. Beans and peas are not mentioned, and it may therefore be inferred that neither was at that time of sufficient importance in northern Virginia to be listed among the farm crops. A legume, probably Vigjia unguiculata, was, however, cultivated in the cornfields to some extent in southern Virginia some years earlier than the publication of Jefferson's Notes. Dr. James Greenway, of Dinwiddle County, Va., in an article on Cassia chamaecrista as a soil renovator (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 3:22G, 1793), says the " common cornfield-pea is far preferable to everything that I have seen tried for this purpose. Every farmer who leaves his pea vines on the ground, and does not in the accustomed manner, pull them up for fodder, must often have observed that they quickly moulder and fall to pieces ; furnishing a covering to the ground, which readily unites and blends with it, in the manner mentioned of the bean " [i. e.. Cassia cliamaecrista'\. A catalogue of the plants found growing near Lancaster, Pa., by Muhlenberg, 1793 (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 3 : 157), in which cultivated and introduced plants are given, as well as wild plants, does not mention any Dolichos or Vigna. The cowjDea evidently had not then reached that locality. 102— VI THK HISTORY OF THE COWPKA. 53 It may be seen from the facts presented that there is no evidence that Vigna iinguiculata was one of the native heans of America. On the contrary, it appears to have been first introduced into Jamaica at some time between 1(572 and 1G87 and to have reached one or more of tlie southernmost colonies, proljably from Januiica, s:ometime after the hitter date, but before 1737, and its use to have extended gradually northward until it reached the Potomac about 1790 or 1795. Notwithstanding the confusion wrought by connnentators seeking to identify Phaseoliis ruhjans with one of the climbing ])lants of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, European botanical literature alfords ver}^ convincing evidence of the Old AVorld oi-igin of VigiKi un- guiculata. Phaseolus vulgaris appears to have reached central Europe about 1530, and many authors at once identified it with Dioscorides's SmiJax kepaia, or, as translated into Latin, Smilax hortensis. The species is discussed by Brunfels, 1536 (Herb. VW. Ic, 3: 130), and identified on the authority of HeironN'nnis Tragus with Dioscorides's plant. Brunfels in his Exegesis onniium simplicium Dioscorides (Brun- fels,** 1532, Herb. Viv. Ic, 2:114), does not identify Smilax more than to say that, according to Barbarus, it is a kind of phaseolus, and it is evident that Phaseolus ralgaris was not known to this author when volume 2 of his work Avas written. Bock, 1540 (Kreuterbuch, 230), has a good colored figure of the kidney bean, and says it has lately come into Germany. Matthiolus, 1588 (Opera, 341), says that phasioli arc common in Italy, but he apparently confuses the dwarf form of Phaseolas vul- garis with the " phasiolus ■' of the ancients. Xo stipules are shown in his figure, and it is probably Phaseolus vulgans. In the earlier editions of Matthiolus's works, which appeared while the author lived in Italy and southern Austria, no bean with " black-ej^ed "' seeds is described among the various sorts of " phasiolus." In a later work, Matthiolus, 1565, Commentarii, 429, the dedication of which was written at Prague, and dated January, 1505, seeds with a black ring about the eye are described, but the figure is the same as in the work issued in 1558. In Camerarius's edition of jNIatthiolus, 1580 (De plantis epitome utilissima, 212), however, the figure of phaseo- lus is Vigna ungniculata. It is certain that a low-growing I'egumi- nous plant, resembling the dwarf form of Phaseolus vulgaris^ was cul- tivated in the Mediterranean region of southern Europe before the discovery of America. Several of the ancient treatises on agriculture give cultural directions for such a plant. Many, if not all, of the ".The edition of this work published iu 15oG was the oue consulted. 102— VI 54 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. botanical authors after Dioscorides mentioned phaseoliis, and Alber- tus Magnus, who lived in the thirteenth century, used the word " faselus " for a plant which had seeds with " a black spot at the hilum." Caesalpin, 1583 (De Plantis, 238), also described " phase- lus " as having seeds with a black pupil. Koernicke, 1885, Verhandlungen des naturhistorischen Vereins der preussichen Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg.-Bezirke Osna- briick, Correspondenzblatt, 136, maintains that the phaseolus of Dioscorides and the phaseolus cultivated in Italy before the dis- covery of America were the same species, '■''Vigna sinensis ^^"^ and that the " Smilax kepaia " of Dioscorides was likewise that species, but a climbing form. Koernicke states that a work of the year 1415, by Rinio, a Venetian physician, contains a colored illustration of " Faseo- lus," and he identifies this as Dolichos melanopthalmus DC. He says also that in both Codices of Dioscorides of the fifth century after Christ, which illustrate the plant named phaseolus, the figures are likewise the low form of Yigna unguiculata, while for Smilax kepaia an illustration is wanting. Koernicke, however, believes Dolichos melanoj)thalmus DC, D. monachalis Brot., D. luhia Forsk., D. sesquipedalis L. to be low forms, and D. catjang L., D. sinensis Stickman, and D. tranqueharicus Jacq. to be climbing forms of the same species. Baker, 1879 (in Hook. Fl. Brit. India, 2:20G), gives F. sinensis as the climbing and T". catjang as the low form. Koer- nicke says that the variation in the seeds is not greater than in Phaseolus vulgaris^ and that dried plants in the Berlin Herbarium show no specific differences. Vigna sinensis {Dolichos sinensis Stick- man) on the basis of priority is adopted by Koernicke as the correct name of the species, but he apparently overlooks the fact that Dolichos unguiculatus L. {Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) is still earlier. Koernicke gives central Africa as the original habitat of the species. Dolichos sesquipedalis, the asparagus bean, is considered a distinct species by most authors, and the writer can not agree with Koernicke that all the other names apply to the same species or that central Africa is the home of any of them. It is true that the habit of growth, whether low or a climbing form, is of no specific value, for Vigna unguicidata at least seems to vary in this respect. The color of the seeds likewise fails as a distinguishing specific character. Dolichos iinguicidatuB L. was founded on specimens grown in the garden at Upsala, but cam'e to Linmeus from Bar- bados. Dolichos sinensis was based on Dolichos sinensis or Katjang Sina of Rumphius, and the figure in Rumphius Herbarium Am- boinense shows a climbing plant with two-flowered racemes and pen- dulous pods. Dolichos catjang is likewise based on a species of Rumphius, Phaseolus minor or katjang poeti. The figures of this 102— VI Bui 102 Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Plant of Vigna catjang (Burm.) Walp. Bui. 102, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VII. Plant of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Bui. 102, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VIM. A. — Mgna unguicidata. Pods of Cowpeas. (Natural size.) B. — Vigna catjang. THK HISTORY OK THE COWPEA. 55 species shoTvs a plant with the racemes two or three flowered, but with the pods at maturity smaller and erect, or nearly so, and with smaller seeds. A species grown in the greenhouses of the United States Department of Agriculture shows similar characters, the pods remaining erect until full grown, although they become pendent at maturity. The pods are also conspicuously torose at maturity. This species is Vigna catjang (Burm.) Walp. (PI. I and V\. Ill, B). Practically all of the varieties commonly cultivated in America belong to Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (F. sinensis (Sticknuin) Endl.), the species with larger seeds and larger pods which usually become pendulous when half their mature size or sometimes even earlier, and which are only slightly constricted l)etween the seeds (PI, IT, and PI. Ill, A). Forskai, 1775 (Fl. Aegypt-Arab., 133), desca-ibed DoUchos luhia as having peduncles racemosely spicate at the apex and the flowers crowded, and it may therefore be inferred that the racemes were several-flowered. The pods were described as erect. The color of the seeds is not mentioned by Forskai, but Delile, 1812 (Plant. Cult, en Egypt, 14), says they were white, with a black point at the eye. Koernicke says the " ring about the navel is pale red," and the seeds labeled D. luhia, recently received from the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, are quite small, red, with a black ring at the hiluni. The varieties of Vigna vngiii/ulata commonly cultivated in America seldom vary from the few-flowered character of the raceme and, at maturity, pendulous pods. Delile says Dolichos luhia is known also in Syria, Persia, and India, but there is but one other modern author who has applied the name to any species in Asia. Basiner, 1848 (Beitr. Russ. Reich., 15: 233), gives Dolichos luhia as one of the for- age plants of Khiva, where it was known as " Lobia " or " Lobi." No description is given, and therefore its identity Avith Forskal's plant is not certain. ^ The fact that Delile says it was found also in India, but does not mention any species of Vigna, suggests that his plant may have been Vigna unguiculata or Vigna catjang. Roxburgh. 1832 (Fl. Ind., 3: 302), described Dolichos sinensis as with peduncles '• many-flowered," and D. catjang, few-flowered. Baker, 1879 (Hook. Fl. Brit. Ind., 2:206), unites the two as V. catjang and says peduncles 3 to G flow- ered. Baker, 1871 (Oliver, Fl. Trop. Afric, 2:204), describes the racemes of Vigna sinensis as 6 to 12 flowered and the pods pendulous. It appears, therefore that the few-flowered character of the raceme usually observed in varieties cultivated in America is not constant in either Vigna unguiculata or Vigna catjang. The descriptions cited above indicate a variation of from 3 to 12 in the number of flowers, and the plant described by Forskai as Dolichos luhia, since it had erect pods, is doubtless identical with V. catjang. Yet, not- 102— VI 56 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS. withstanding the variation in habit and number of flowers in the raceme, the small seeds and small, erect jDods of Yigna catjang ap- pear to be constant characters, and two species, Vigna unguieulata {V. sinensis) and V. catjang, therefore are probably concerned in the descriptions of these plants by the above 'authors. It is quite possible that Vigna unguieulata and V. catjang may have been grown by the Romans without being distinguished. The cultivation and even knowledge of them, however, appears to have been extremely limited in Europe, and F. unguieulata at least may have first reached central Europe not from Italy, but by way of Russia and Russian Turkestan. In 1583 Clusius (Atrebatis Rar. Stirp., 725) described and figured a plant as a kind of phaseolus which is undoubtedly Yigna unguieu- lata, though pods are not shown in the figure. Seeds of this plant were received by Clusius at Vienna in the year 1576, having been sent by Dodoens from Prague, where it was grown in the garden of the castle the previous year. The following year, 1577, seeds of the same plant were also sent by the Spaniards to the Austrian Emperor. These statements are repeated by Clusius, 1601 (Hist. Rar. PL, p. ccxxii), where the same figure, as in the previous work, is reversed and a figure of the pods in addition is given. It would appear from these records that Vigna unguieulata first became known to the botanists of central and northern Europe by its being grown at Prague. If seeds had reached Prague from Italy, the plant would probably have been known also at Vienna, which was in the route of trade from Italy northward, and, since Prague is an inland city, the seeds may have been brought overland directly from Persia or India. So long as the Venetians were in control of the trade with India, Austria and southern Germany carried on commerce with Venice. With the acquisition of the Indian trade by the Portuguese, Venice could no longer supply the markets of Europe with the products of the East and European nations apparently soon became jealous of the ad- vantages held by Portugal, for it is stated by Robertson, 1802 (His- torical Disquisition Concerning India, 319), that an attempt was made, in order to diminish the advantages which the Portuguese de- rived from the discovery of a sea passage around the Cape of Good Hope, to induce the Russians to convey Indian and Chinese com- modities through their Empire to some port on the Baltic from which they might be distributed through every part of Europe. This author also gives a brief account of the trade thus established. Yeats, 1872 (The Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, 155), states that Kazan was the chief entrepot of the trade of northern and central Asia. Russian trade with other European nations ap- 102— VI THE HISTORY OF THE COWPEA. 57 pears to have been confined largely to the countries of the north and the cities belonging to the Hanseatic League. Very little seems to have been written concerning the commerce of Prague, but the Bo- hemians are a Slavic people and it is not improbable that they had some trade with the other Slavic peoples of P^urope. At least no explanation of the occurrence of Vigna iinguiculata at Prague before it was known at Vienna seems so plausible as that it came by one of the caravan routes to Russia and thence to Prague. De Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, 39) says Slum sisarum " came perhaps from Siberia into Russia, and thence into Germany," and inclii>es to the view that it was not known to the ancient (Ireeks and Romans. This species is considered to be a native of the Altai region of Silx>ria and northern Persia. The caravan route from India and (^hinn to Russia passed through the latter region. The figure in Rinio, 1415 (I)e Simplicibus), referred to by Koer- nicke, the writer has not seen, but in the Vienna Dioscorides Codex, dating from about the fifth century, the figure of the plant supposed to be the phasiolus of Dioscorides shows a several-flowered raceme. It also shows what appear to l)e mature pods and, while not strictly erect, they are not j^endulous like those of Vigna unguiculata. The word " lubia " is written in Arabic on the parchment and the figure corresj^onds verv closely with the description of Dollchos labia. Forskal saj's the latter species was known among the Arabs as ^^Luhia haeledi'''' (common lubia). Dioscorides was probabh' born at Ana- zarba, a j^lace in southeastern Asia Minor near the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, but he is supposed to have traveled and it is not known where the plants he described ma}' have been seen. Koernicke believes the species to have come originally from central Africa, as it grows wild there. This, however, is not necessarily con- clusive. There are other instances, especially in the Troi:)ics, of plants appearing indigenous to countries in which they are known not to be native. The facts given by Koernicke indicate rather that the species has been introduced into central Africa, for he gives no name in the native language, but says it is known to the natives by the Ara- bian names " lubiah " and " ollaich." Seeds of this plant have never been found in the monuments of ancient Egypt, and the origin of the word " lubia " indicates that the plant to which it was applied came into Arabia and Egypt from the east. Lubia, lubiya, or lobiya probably was not derived from the Greek word AoySo?, wdiich prima- rily means any projection like the lobe of the ear, but appears to be of Persian origin and came to India through the Persians. Sir George Watt, 1890 (Diet. Econ. Prod. India, 3: 184), says: "No name like lobiya is given to any pulse by the aboriginal races of Indian or by those of Aryan origin. It occurs purely among the 102— VI 58 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS. f)eople of upper India, where Persian influence is most pronounced." The same author states that in all the districts of the northwest provinces, with but one possible exception, the word lobiya is applied to Vigna catjang. Although none of the Indian works consulted that m.ention lubiva are of such ancient date as Dioscorides, they nevertheless indicate the antiquity of its cultivation in India. Vigna catjang^ the species with erect pods, is described and figured in Rheede, 1688 (Hort. Malabar, 8:75. t. J^l)^ under the name paeru. It is interesting to note that the root nodules were mentioned in this work, " The root is slender, whitish, and fibrous, the fibers clothed with round globules." Rheede described nine different preparations of the seed which were used in medicine. Other bean-like plants occur in the same work under the names putsja-paeru and catu-paeru, which indicates that the jiaeru was better and probably longer known than the plants to which compound names were given. In a work, Ain-i-Akbari or Ayeen Akbery (Institutes of Uie Emperor Akbar), written in Persian during the reign of the Emperor Akbar, 15.56-1605, describing the crojDS grown in Delhi and Agra, translated by Francis Gladwin, 1783, 1 : 87, " lubya " is given as one of the crops of the autumnal harvest. Sir George AVatt states that at the present time this would be Vigna catjang, and in all probability^ would have been the same in Akbar's time. Sir George Watt gives nearly 50 vernacular names in differ- ent Indian languages, of which only four are compound words and only four others consist of more than one word. One of the Sanskrit names given by AVatt is nishpdva. In the Vishnu Purana, lib. 1, cap. 6, supposed to date from about 1045 A. D. (translation by Horace Wilson, Complete Works, 6: 95), " Xishpava, a sort of pulse," is men- tioned in the list of important grains. This work is five hundred years later than the illustration in the Vienna Dioscorides Codex. Nevertheless, Sanskrit for two thousand years or more has led an artificial existence, being the means of communication and literary expression of the priestly and learned castes, and the writer finds no indication that the name nishpava has ever been applied to any other plant. The species appear to be probably of less ancient cultivation in China, for there is no indication of a Chinese introduction into India or Persia, and it is improbable that the same species would be native on both sides of such a natural barrier as the Himalayas. Neverthe- less, Vigna unguiculata at least appears to have been long cultivated in China. It is mentioned and illustrated in the second edition of the Kiu Huang Pen Ts'ao, which appeared in 1559. In this work it is called the " common bean," and other beans are compared with it. It has not been practicable to consult the first edition of this work, pub- lOB— VI THE HISTORY OF THE COWPEA. 59 lisliod in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and whether it appears there or not is uncertain. It may be noted that no phmt of American origin lias Ix-en iihMiti- fied in any Cliincse work previous to the Pen Ts'ao Kang Mu, which was finished in 1578, though not published until after 1596. It nuiy be concluded from the facts so far known regarding these species that both Vig?ia iinguicidatd and V. catjang originally came from a region including and extending from India to Persia and the southern part of the Trans-Caspian district, and that the Persians called one or both of them by the name " lubia " and applied that name to V. nnguieulata in northAvest India after their conquest of that region. The cultivation of T^. unguiculata extended to China at a very early date, but the distribution of at least one of the species with the name '* lubia " had extended from the region of its origin at the besrinnino; of the Christian era to Arabia and Asia Minor and had reached some of the Mediterranean countries of Europe at about the same time, but did not become known in central Europe until the middle of the sixteenth century. 102-VI B. P. I.— 287. A NEW METHOD POR THE DI-TERMIXAITOK OF NICOTINE IN TOBACCO." By WiGHTMAN W. (t.\rneh, Scientific Assistant, Tobacco Breeding Investigations. THE RELATION OF NICOTINE TO THE QUALITY OF TOBACCO. Nicotine i^ the characteristic alkak)i(l of tobacco, and thus far has not l)een found in any other phint. Its function in the economy of the pLant is not understood, and it has not been determined Avith certainty whether it phiys a role in nutrition or is simply a waste product resulting from katabolic changes in the albuminoid constitu- ents. The physiological effects on the human system resulting from the use of tobacco are doubtless due chiefly to the presence of nico- tine, though in the case of tobacco used for smoking purposes other constituents of the smoke probably play a considerable part. On the other hand, it has been repeatedly shown that the burn, flavor, aroma, and other important qualities of tobacco are in no sense pro- aln the Tobacco Breeding Investigations conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry careful experiments have been undertaken to determine the rehition of the nicotine content of cigar filler and wrapper tobaccos to the quality of these tobaccos. It has been found in the preliminary experiments carried out by Dr. W. W. Garner, of this o'ffice, that the nicotine content of the leaves of different tobacco plants grown under the same conditions varies in a striking manner. The variability of the nicotine content of individual plants has sug- gested the possibility of securing, by breeding and seed selection, strains of the different varieties of cigar wrapper and filler tobaccos possessing a low or a high nicotine content. The large number of nicotine determinations necessary in the carrying out of these tests has required a great expenditure of time and money owing to the complicated and expensive method of determination. The new method of determining the nicotine content of tobacco described in this bulletin greatly simplifies the work of the experimenter by enabling him to make many more determinations in the same length of time than by any previous method. This method also is very much less expensive than any previous method and, as shown in this bulletin, is more satisfactory from the stand- point of accuracy and reliability. The relation of the nicotine content of tobacco to the quality and other characteristics of tobacco and the possibility of breeding tobacco low or high in nicotine content will be presented in more detailed future reports of the Department.— A. D. Shamel, Physiologist in Charge of Cotton and Tobacco Breeding Investigations. 102 — VII 61 62 MISCELLANEOUS PAPEKS. portional to the amount of nicotine present. Indeed, even the " strength '' of manufactured tobacco — using this term in the sense understood by the trade — is not dependent upon the nicotine content. It seems only reasonable, however, to suppose that tobacco entirely free from nicotine would no longer j)rove satisfying to the consumer any more than would whisky deprived of all its alcohol. Numerous attempts have been made to devise a process for the partial removal of the nicotine from tobacco, either before or after it is manufactured, by appropriate treatment, and many patents have been issued for jirocesses intended to accomplish this result, but none of the 25roposed methods has as yet proved sufficiently practicable to come into general use, and this is not surprising when it is re- membered that -the flavor and aroma of tobacco are comparable in delicac}^ to those of tea and coffee and that consequently even the mildes-t treatment for the removal of the alkaloid is almost certain to result in injury to these qualities. There can be no doubt that there would be a genuine demand for tobacco containing only a verj^ small percentage of nicotine but retaining the other attributes of the best grades of the crop as now j)roduced, especially in the case of the cigar-filler types. The most rational method of attaining this end would seem to lie in the sys- tematic breeding of types characterized by their low nicotine content, and at the same time avoiding those soils, fertilizers, and cultural methods which tend to the excessive production of the nitrogenous constituents of the plant. Extensive experiments have been under- taken in connection with the Tobacco Breeding Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industr}^ with the object of securing types of tobacco of this kind, and the results already obtained tend to show that the variation in nicotine content of individual selections from various tj^pes is fully as great as that of such physical characteristics as shape, size, and nmnber of leaves. Since nothing like sufficient data are available for establishing any constant relation between the l^hysicfil characteristics of different tobacco plants and their nicotine content, these experiments necessitate the accurate determination by analysis of the quantity of the latter in a very large nmnber of selected plants. THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF NICOTINE IN TOBACCO. In order to conduct these experiments on a sufficiently comprehen- sive scale it is imperative that there be available a method for the estimation of nicotine which is reasonably accurate and is at the same time rapid, so that a large number of determinations may be com- pleted in a day's work. Kissling" has developed a method which oZeitschr. Analyt. Cliem., XXII, 199. 102 — VII DETERMINATION OF NICOTINE IN TOBACfMX 63 seems to have given satisfactory results in the hands of most analysts, and has come to be recognized as the standard i^rocess. But this method is long and tedious, and hence is not adapted to our needs. It consists essentially in moistening the powdered sample with aque- ous caustic soda and extracting with ether for several hours in a suitable form of continuous extraction apparatus. The ether is care- fully distilled from the extract, and the residue is subjected to distilla- tion with steam. The distillate is collected in 100 c. c. portions and titrated with a standard acid. It is apparent that the process is an expensive one, both in point of materials consumed and necessary equipment and in the time required for carrying it out. Keller ° has described a method which is simple and rapid in execu- tion and avoids the tedious process of distilling the extracted nicotine with steam. Six grams of the tobacco, previously dried over lime, are placed in a cylinder with GO grams of ordinary ether and GO grams of petroleum ether, and 10 c. c. of 20 per cent aqueous caustic potash are added. The contents of the cylinder are vigorously shaken for thirty minutes and then allowed to stand for three hours to clarify. The extract is filtered and 100 grams of it placed in a cylinder. To remove the ammonia in solution, a rapid current of air is blown through the extract, after Avhich there are added 10 c, c. of water. After shaking well, an excess of standardized hydrochloric acid is added and the titration completed with standardized ammonia. With some minor modifications the method gives fair approximations, but we have found that it is unsuited to our requirements. In point of materials consumed it is even more expensive than the Kissling proc- ess, and it also contains several sources of error. Adding 10 c. c. of aqueous potash to the ether mixture increases the total weight of solvent more than 8 per cent, and considerable quantities of nicotine remain in the aqueous portion. Ordinary ether boils at 36° C., which is but little above ordinary room temperatures, and consequently it is quite impossible to filter the extract without very considerable loss of the solvent by evaporation. Again, most tobaccos yield extracts which are so deeply colored that the nicotine can not be titrated with accuracy until the solvent has been removed. This is the principal reason why it is necessary to subject the extract obtained by the Kissling process to distillation with steam. From the results of our experiments with Keller's method, supplemented by further tests along other lines, we have developed a process Avhich differs essen- tially from Keller's in all of the details of the operation and. obviates the difficulties encountered in the latter. cBer. Pharm. (iesell., 1S98, 145. 4359— No. 102—07 5 64 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Nicotine is readily soluble in nearly all of the ordinary solvents, and hence there is no difficulty in extracting it completely from tobacco after it has been liberated from its salts by means of a fixed alkali. The separation of the nicotine from ammonia and amid bodies, which are always present in tobacco, is the princijoal problem to be solved in this connection. By using such solvents as ether and ligroin, however, only the nicotine and a portion of the ammonia are contained in the extract, and it is possible to remove subsequently practically all of the ammonia by appropriate methods. THE PROPOSED NEW METHOD. In endeavoring to devise a method for estimating nicotine suited to our requirements, three principal objects were kept in mind, namely, the use of a comparativeh^ cheap solvent, the extraction of the nico- tine without the use of an extraction apparatus requiring the applica- tion of heat, and the direct titration of the extract without previous distillation. Our j^rocess as finally adoj^ted accomj^lishes all of these ends, as will appear below. Gasoline or ligroin was chosen as the most suitable solvent. This is prej)ared by shaking the crude gasoline of 70° with concentrated sulphuric acid and distilling and collecting the distillate coming over between the limits of 60° and 100° C. By using a product with high boiling point, the evaporation which takes place during the filtration of the extract is reduced to a minimum and there is little danger of explosions occurring from the accumulation of the vapors in the atmosphere of the room. A number of 2:)reliminary exj^eriments were carried out to determine the conditions necessary for the com- plete extraction of the nicotine from the tobacco and the effect of varying amounts of ammonia on the results obtained by titration of the extracts. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS. In order to avoid the iwssibility of the j^resence of organic acids in the extract and to insure the comj^lete extraction of the nicotine, a fixed alkali must be added, and this is best apj)lied in aqueous solu- tion. Gasoline and water are immiscible and their mutual solubility is verv slight, but these facts do not in anv wav hinder or retard the extraction of the nicotine, since the latter is easily soluble in both the water and the gasoline. It is necessary to agitate the mixture only occasionally to avoid too great a concentration of the nicotine in the portion of either solvent which happens to be in direct contact with the tobacco. Using the ligroin in quantities of 100 c. c. to 6 or 8 grams or less of tobacco, it was found that the extraction of the nicotine is com- plete at the end of four hours, and when the quantity of the latter in 102— vu DETKKMIXATION OF NICOTINE IX TORACCO. 65 the tobacco is .small less time is requirecL Ligroin is capable of dissolving; only a very small quantity of ammonia gas, and even this is rapidly given off when the solution is exposed to the air, and especially when it is also agitated. It was found by experiment that 100 c. c. of ligroin saturated with ammonia, after being allowed to stand one hour in an un.stoppered Erlonmeyer flask, retained less than 5 milligrams of this base. On the other hand we have found that no loss of nicotine Avhatever occurs when a solution of 0.3 gram of the base in 100 c. c. of ligroin — equivalent to 5 per cent nicotine in G gpams of tobacco — is allowed to stand several hours in an open beaker at ordinary room temperature. Tobacco, esi^ecially after it has been fermented, contains considerable quantities of ammonia, but it was found that only a small proportion of this is contained in the extract; hence the quantity dissolved is not sensibly affected by the varj'ing amounts contained in different samples of tobacco. This fact is of importance, because it renders the subsequent removal of the ammonia a very simple nuitter; in fact, even if no attempt is made to remove the ammonia in solution the error result- ing therefrom will not exceed 0.2 per cent. In the following table the results given in i:)ercentages in column 1 were obtained without the previous addition of ammonia, while those in column 2 Avere obtained from the same samples after the addition of quantities of ammonia in aqueous solution corresponding to 1.4 and 3.5 per cent, respectively, for 6 grams of tobacco : Fielii number of tobacco samples. 1 Nicotine. 2 Nicotine. 13-2-3 Per cent. 3.51 3.04 Per cent. 3 53 3-20-2 3 05 A fair idea of the ammonia actually dissolved by the gasoline is given by the results shown in the following table. The percentages in column 1 were obtained by direct titration of the extracts, while in the case of the first two experiments, the results of which appear in column 2, a current of air was drawn through the extract for five minutes before titrating, and in the last three experiments the solu- tions w^ere allowed to stand an hour in unstoppered Erlenmeyer flasks before making the titrations. Field number of tobacco samples. 1 Nicotine. 2 Nicotine. 13-2-3 Per cent. 3.53 3.09 1.92 1.X6 1.53 Per cent. 3"46 3-20-2 3 04 123a-l-4 1 82 123a-l-2 1 76 3-20-.5-12 ] "■> 102— vu 66 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Finally, a number of analyses of different samples were made in duplicate to show that the proposed method gives concordant results even when some of the conditions are somewhat modified, as, for example, when the volume of aqueous caustic soda added to the tobacco before extraction is varied. The tabulated results follow^ : Field number of tobacco samples. 75-124, 222 . 75-124, 202- . 125a-l-2... ]23a-l-l... 123a-l-3 . . . DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD. From these preliminary data we have been able to work out the details of a very simple method for the quantitative estimation of nicotine which is both .rapid and accurate and requires nothing but the simplest forms of apparatus and inexpensive materials. The air-dried sample is pulverized by passing through a sieve con- taining twenty or more Avires to the inch. For exact work the water content is determined by drying over sulphuric acid for forty-eight hours 1 gram of the sample on a large watch glass placed in a desic- cator, while for approximate results the air-dried sample may be assumed to contain 5 per cent of water. Six grams of the pulverized sample are weighed into a beaker, from 3 c. c. to 5 c. c. of 5 per cent aqueous caustic soda solution are added, and the mixture is stirred with a steel spatula until homogeneous. The quantity of caustic soda solution to be used depends on the character of the tobacco to be ana- lyzed; thin, light-bodied samples, such as cigar-Avrapper tobaccos, require a larger amount of the solution than do thick, heavy samples, such as domestic cigar-filler types. The moistened samjole is next transferred to a 200 c. c. glass cylin- der and 100 c. c. of the ligroin are added. The cylinder is tightly stoppered and the contents thoroughly agitated for a few minutes, after which the cylinder is placed in a horizontal position. This insures the exposure of a maximum amount of surface of the tobacco to the solvent action of the ligroin. Stout glass tubing of suitable diameter and length, sealed at one end and fitted with a good soft cork, serves equally as well as the cylinder for the extraction. After four hours, during Avhich time the contents of the cylinder should be thoroughly agitated at intervals of about thirty minutes, the latter is placed in an upright position in order to allow the upper portion of the gasoline to clarify. After thirty minutes or longer the extract is passed through a folded filter, care being taken to first moisten the filter with the clear portion of the gasoline. The extract is poured 102— VII DETERMINATION OF NICOTINE IN ToBACCO. 67 off from the tobacco Avithoiit bringing the hitter ou the fiUer, and further i)ortions are pre^^sed ont by means of a glass rod flattened at one end. The fihration shoukl be carried out as rapidly as possible in order to avoid loss from evaporation, and as soon as ail the extract can be brought on the filter the funnel should be covered with a watch glass. An aliquot portion of the filtrate — conveniently 75 c. c, corresponding to 4.5 grams of tobacco — is measured into a dry separatory funnel, -which is left unstoppered and allowed to stand for about an hour in order to remove the ammonia. As has already been stated, no loss of nicotine is to ]>e feared by this treatment. Instead of allowing the extract to stand in the funnel a slow current of air may be drawn through it for five minutes by means of a stopper sup- Dlied with inlet and outlet tubes, the latter of which is connected with a filter pump. After the ammonia has been removed 10 c. c. of fifth- normal sulphuric acid in about 50 c. c. of water are introduced into the funnel and the contents thoroughly shaken. After draAving off the aqueous layer the gasoline is washed twice with small volumes of water and the excess of sulphuric acid titrated with tenth-normal alkali, using cochineal as the indicator. This method of titrating the nicotine may be modified as follows: The measured portion of the filtered extract is placed in a 250 c. c. Erlenmeyer flask and allowed to stand an hour. The standard acid is then run in and a convenient volume of water added. The contents of the flask are thoroughly shaken, and after the two layers have separated the greater portion of the ligroin is drawn off by means of a pipette.<» The excess of acid is then titrated as before. One cubic centimeter of fifth-normal sulphuric acid is equivalent to 0.0324 gram of nicotine. COMPARISON OF THE NEW METHOD WITH THAT OF KISSLING. As has already been stated, the only reliable method for the deter- mination of nicotine heretofore available is that of Kissling. and we have used this as the standard for comparison. The nicotine content of a large number of samples. of tobacco of different types has been determined both by the Kissling process and by the new method, and the figures given in the following table are fairly representative of the results obtained. It will be seen that the nicotine content in the different samples included in the table varies from 5 to less than 1 per cent, and these samples represent practically all classes of domestic cigar tobacco of both w^rapper and filler types. Most of the samples had been fer- alt is necessai-y to remove the greater portion of tlie gasoline before titrating because of the yellow coloring matter which it contains in solution. 102 — VII 68 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. mentecl, but some of them were iinfermented. All results are cal- culated on the water-free samples. 75-154,242. 75-154,218. 13-2-3 3-20-2 125b-l-t . . 123a-l-12 . 124b-l-l . . 123a-l-l 1 . 125a-l-2 . . 123a-l-l . . 125b-l-l . . 123a-l-8 . . 123a-l-3 . . 123a-l-2 . . 123a-l-9 . . 125a-l-4 .. 3-20-.5-12. . 124b-l-6 . . 3-20-5-6... 109-3-4.... yield number of tobacco samples. Kissling New method. method. Per cent. Per cent. 5.03 5.02 4.70 4.61 3.66 3.57 3.18 3.09 2.60 2.59 2.37 2.27 2.19 2.11 2.15 2.08 2.19 2.03 2.00 1.92 1.92 1.95 1.97 1.88 1.96 1.87 1.72 1.76 1.64 1.77 1.64 1.57 1..52 1.53 1.58 1.49 1.32 1.40 .89 .94 Differ- ence. Per cent. -0.01 - .09 - .09 - .09 - .01 - .10 - .08 - .07 - .16 - .08 + .03 - .09 - .09 + .04 + .13 - .07 + .01 - .09 + .08 + .05 Average difference, 0.04 per cent. CONCLUSION. It will be observed that the results shown in the above table indicate that the new method gives figures averaging a few hundredths per cent lower than the Kissling method. This difference is due to the water added to the sample along with the caustic soda, which is not taken into account in the calculations. From 3 to 5 c. c. of water are thus added, depending upon the character of the tobacco. As is well known, tobacco is markedly hygroscopic, and a considerable portion of the added water is doubtless held in loose chemical combination with the salts contained in the tobacco, and hence does not act as a solvent for the nicotine. The portion of the water not thus combined, how- ever, really forms a part of the nicotine extract. It was found by experiment that the relative solubility of nicotine in ligroin and in water is in the ratio of 11 to 9. The mutual solubilities of ligroin and water are so slight as to be negligible, and there is no appreciable contraction in volume when the two are mixed. Taking all the facts into consideration, it is clear that the actual error resulting from the addition of the water to the sample to be analyzed is too small and variable to attempt any correction therefor. It should be observed in this connection that those types which con- tain the highest percentage of nicotine belong to the class of heavy filler tobaccos, and hence require the addition of only the smallest quantity of water. This, of course, tends to equalize this source of error. The analyses by the Kissling method were not made in dupli- cate,- and differences in the results obtained by the two methods amounting to one-tenth of 1 per cent or more are doubtless due to slight experimental errors. 102 — VII DETERMINATION OF NICOTINE IN TOBACCO. 69 After a very careful test of our new process, we are fully convinced that it ^ives very reliable and accurate results, while it is so simple in execution that there are few chances for the occurrence of errors in manipulation. • 10:^ — VII I X 1) 1- X. Page. Alfalfa, vegetative propagation, 2)cip<'r :i3-37 Application of vegetative propagation to leguminous forage plants, ;Kj;>e)- .'W-S? Beans, history from earliest times 44-59 Breeding plants by cuttings .>5-37 Butter produced on successful dairy farm 23 Cacti, ash content ^"^^ balanced ration 1L-1.> chemical analyses ^ composition, table 1^ common and scientific names 1'^ climatic requirements of prickly iiears 16-17 fed with other foods 11-13 food value of different parts of plant 11-12 species studied 17-18 use of prickly pears in Mexico ^ '' value as stock food, jmper ' ~1^ of different groups 1"^ water content - ^~" Control of Texas root-rot of cotton, paper 39-42 Cotton, Texas root-rot, benefit of crop rotation -10 cause ■*" control, paper 39-42 effect of deep fall plowing -i*^ spring plowing and subsoiling 41 efforts to prevent or control '10 importance of aeration of soil 40-41 treatment recommended 41-42 Cowpea, history and introduction into America, paper 43-59 Cows and calves, feed Cropping system, plans for farms, paper ,-!->-31 Crop rotation on dairy farms '-0-21 recommended and adopted on Illinois farm 2.1-31 Cuttings, method of propagation ■ "^"'^^ Dairy farm, successful, j:»(f^^cr 19--3 receipts and expenses 23 Determination of nicotine in tobacci), new method, jx;/)? r 61-69 Disease, Texas root-rot of cotton, control, paper 39-42 Dodge, Lawrenxe Green, paper entitled "A successful dairy farm " 19-23 Farm cropping system, paper 2o-31 dairy, successful, 2Mper 19-23 102 71 72 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Page. Farm , hog, system of management 25-26 in Illinois for which a cropping system was recommended ^ 27-31 Feed for cows and calves 22 stock of different kinds 2/-31 value of cacti ' -18 Forage plants, leguminous, vegetative propagation, }iaj)Ci- 33-3 < Garner, Wightmax Wells, paper entitled "A new method for the determina- tion of nicotine in tobacco " 61-69 Griffiths, David, and Hare, R. F., paper entitled " Sunnnary of recent investi- gations of the value of cacti as stock food " 7-18 Hare, R. F., and Griffiths, David, paper entitled "Summary of recent investi- gations of the value of cacti as stock food " 7-18 Harvesting hay on dairy farm ■• 21-22 Hay harvesting on dairy farm, method 21-22 History of the cowpea and its introduction into America, fapcr 43-59 Illinois farm for which a cropping system was recommended 27-31 Inbreeding of plants, effect - '-^^ Kissling's method for determination of nicotine in tobacco, comparison with ne\\' method '^ ' ~*^8 Legumes, propagation by cuttings, paper 33-37 Miles, George Freeman, and Shear, Corxelus Lott, paper entitled "The control of Texas root-rot of cotton " 39-42 New method for the determination of nicotine in tobacco, paper 61-69 New York dairy farm, successful, jxiper 19-23 Nicotine in tobacco, comparison of new method with that of Kissling 67-68 description of new method of determination 66-67 experiments to determine 64-66 new method of determination, paper 61-69 proposed new method of determination 64-67 quantitative determination 62-64 results secured by new method of determination 68-69 relation to quality of tobacco 61-62 Oliver, George Watson, and Westgate, Johx 3Iixtox, paper entitled "The application of vegetative propagation to leguminous forage ].lants" 33-37 Opuntia spp. See Cacti. Pasture for stock, area required 2/-31 Pear, prickly. See Cacti. Peas, history from earliest times - 44-.;9 Planning a cropping system, paper 2o-31 Plants, breeding by cuttings, advantages 35-37 inbreeding, effect 37 leguminous forage, vegetative propagation, paper 33-37 method of propagation by cuttings 34-35 self-fertile, list 36 self-sterile, list 36 Poultry produced on successful dairy farm 23 Profits of successful dairy farm 23 Propagation, vegetative, for leguminous forage plants, paper 33-37 method employed with leguminous plants 34-35 Receipts on successful dairy farm 23 Root-rot of cotton, control, paper 39-42 102 INDKX. 73 Rotation followed on siiccessiful dairy larm 20-21 recommended for Illinois farm 29-31 Sell-li-rtility of plants 36 pollination, varial>ility of legumes 37 sterility of plants ;;6 Sheak, CoRXELirs Lott, and Miles, George Freeman, paper entitiitl "The cuiitrol of Texas root-rot of cotton" 3!1— 12 Spillman, William Jaspeij, i)aper entitletl " Planning a cropping system".. 25-31 Stock food, value of cacti, paper 7-18 Successful dairy farm, paper 19-23 Summary of recent investigations of the value of cacti as stock f 1, jxijier . . . 7-lH Texas root-rot of cotton, control, jiajtrr 39-42 Tobacco, new method for determination of nicotine content, jmprr ()l-()9 relation to quality of nicotine content ()l-ti2 Value of cacti as stock fooer 7-18 Vegetative proi>agation for leguminous forage plant<, ]>aper 33-37 Vigna v.nguiculata, history, pajier 43-59 Washington, Cieorge, nse of cowpeas, etc 51-52 West(;ate, John Minton, and Oliver, (jteokoe Watson, paper entitled "The application of vegetative propagation to leguminous forage plants" 33-37 Wight, William F., paper entitled "The history of the cowpeaand itsintro- duction into America 43-59 102 O fCnntinucfl from pape 2 of cover.] 54. Persian Gulf Dates. 190:5. Price, 10 cents. 55. The Dry-Kot of Potatoes. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 56. Nomenclature of the Apple. 1905. Price, 30 cents. 57. Methods Used for ControllinojSand-Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 58. The Vitality and Gerniination of Seetli^. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebra.ska. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 60. A Soft Rot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 61. The Avocado in Florida. 1904. Price, 5 cents. 62. Notes on Egyptian Agriculture. 19Q4. Price, 10 cents. 63. Investigations of Rusts. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 64. A Method of Destroying or Preventing the Growth of Alg:e and Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Water Sui)plies. 1904. Price, 5 cents. 65. Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 60. Seeds and Plants Impcjrted. Inventory No. 10. 1905. Price, 20 cents. 67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price, 15 cent«. 68. North American Specie^ of Agrostis. 1905. Price, 10 cents. 69. Ayierican Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. Price, 15 cents. 70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. 1905. Price, 15 cents. 72. ]Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 73. The Develoi)ment of Single-Germ Beet Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents. 74. Prickly Pear and Other Cacti as Fo(jd for Stock. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 75. Range Management in the State of Washingtcni. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 76.' Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 77. The Avocado, a SalaS'ee(/ Laboratory, Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge. Grain Standardization, .John D. Shanahan, Expert in Charge. Mississipi>i Valley Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo., Hermann von Schrenk, Expert in Charge. Subtropical Laboratory and Garden, Miami, Fla., Ernst A. Bessey, I'athologist in Charge. Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cah, August Mayer, Expert in Charge. South Texas Garden, Broirnsville. Tex., Edward C. Green. Pomologist in Charge. Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A. Knapp, Lake Charles, La., Special Agent in Charge. Editor, .T. E. Rockwell. Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. 2 103 LHTTHR OF TRAXSMITFAL. U. S, Depart>[ext or A(;i;i( ilture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Was/iiiifjtoi,, D. 6'., Mavch 0, 1907. Sir: I have the honor to transmit hei'e\tith and to recommend for publication as Bulletin Xo. 103 of the series of this Bureau, the ac- companying manuscript, entitled " Dry Farming in the Great Basin," by C. S. Scofield. Agriculturist in Charge of "Western Agricultural Extension Investigations. Nearly one-third of the arable land of the United States is either arid or semiarid. and consequently can be used for agriculture only when irrigated or when devoted to such crops as are able to thrive with a limited supply of moisture or such as pei-mit special tillage by which the scanty rainfall may be secured and held in the soil. Notwithstanding the natural drawbacks of this great semiarid region, which occupies the larger part of the western United States, hardy pioneers have found Avithin it many places where profitable farming is possible, and they have worked out tillage methods and found suitable crops for some sections that were believed a quarter of a century ago to be unfit for anything but stock ranges. In the present paper Mr. Scofield describes the natural conditions and discusses the farming methods and the crops for one of the sec- tions of this arid region where '* dry farming "' is now successfully carried on. Some of the more important factors that have made this development possible are shown to be a distribution of the rainfall which is favorable as to season, a clean summer fallow between crops to conserve the rainfall of two seasons where necessary to pro- duce a crop, and the maintenance of soil fertility by good tillage, together with the continued addition of organic matter to the soil. It is shown, also, that while something has been done in the way of using drought-resisting crops, secured either through introduc- tions from other countries or by plant breeding, much still remains to be done in this direction, and that further work along this line, together with still more knowledge as to the efficiency and cost of various tillage methods, promises to greatly extend the boundaries of profitable agriculture in the arid West. Respectfully, B. T. Gallow^ay, Hon. Ja:\ies AYilson, ^^ecreirary of Agricultwre. Chief of Bureau. 103 COXTliXTS. Page. Introduction 7 Location and general description of the region Experiments in dry farming in the Great Basin 11 Private experiments in dry farming 13 The Utah arid experiment farms 14 Local conditions which affect dry farming 15 Precipitation mainly in winter 16 Annual variation in rainfall 18 Influence of local topography on rainfall 20 Methods of interseason tillage 22 Maintenance of a clean summer fallow 24 The importance of soil texture 25 Crops and crop tillage 27 Tillage for wheat 28 Tillage for alfalfa 29 Thin seeding essential to best results 30 The sustained productiveness of dry-farmed soils 31 The heavy soils not leached : 32 The importance of organic matter in the soil 33 Conditions favoring nitrification 33 The fixation of nitrogen 34 Organic matter lost by oxidation 35 Dry farming supplementary to irrigation 35 Making a home on the dry lands 36' Summary 38 Description of plates 40 Index 41 103 5 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Page. Plate I. Fig. 1. — General view of the San Juan County Arid Farm, Utah. Fig. 2. — Field of wheat in shock on land adjacent to the San .Juan County Arid Farm 40] II. Fig. 1. — Field showing the type of summer fallow maintained in every other series on the San Juan County Arid Farm. Fig. 2. — The interior of an alfalfa plat on the San Juan County Arid Farm 40 III. Fig. 1. — A poor crop of wheat on the Sevier County Arid Farm, Utah. Fig. 2. — A crop of wheat grown without irrigation in the Cache Valley, Utah 40 IV. Fig. 1. — Harvesting wheat grown without irrigation, near Nephi, Utah. Fig. 2. — A hillside garden in a semiarid region, show- ing one of the settling ditches used to catch and hold the water which runs off the hill above 40 TEXT riGURES. Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the Great Basin 10 2. Sketch map of Utah, showing the irrigated areas according to the census of 1900 and the location of arid experiment farms 14 3. Duigrams showing the average monthly precipitation at some rep- resentative points in the semiarid West 18 4. Diagram showing the total annual precipitation at Logan, Utah, 1893-1906 - 19 5. Diagram showing the total annual precipitation at Tooele, Utah, 1897-1906 20 6. Diagram showing the total annual precipitation at Levan, Utah, 1890-1906 21 7. Diagram showing the total annual precipitation at Parowan, Utah, 1891-1906 22 8. Profile sketch showing the relative positions of Deseret, Fillmore, and Richfield, Utah 23 6 103 B. r. I. — 26fi. DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. INTRODUCTION. During the past four or five years much interest has been mani- fested by the people of this country in the possibility of utilizing for agriculture some of the arable land in the western United States where the rainfall is insufficient for ordinary farming. There are several conditions that have contributed to this interest. American agri- culture has enjoyed a large measure of prosperity during recent years and agricultural investment and farm-home development have received an unusual impetus. The choicest of the well-watered public lands have passed into private ownership and have greatly advanced in price. Then, also, during the last two or three years there has been rather more than the normal amount of rainfall over the larger part of the arid region, and many people acquainted only with the present con- ditions firmly believe that the climate is gradually becoming more humid. This belief is probably without any foundation in fact, and it is surprising that it should exist, for the j)recipitation records of the whole country receive wide publicity ; but since the idea is gener- ally held and has been widely advertised it becomes important to emphasize the fact that there is no adequate basis for hoping that the climate of the arid "West is undergoing any appreciable change as regards precipitation. "Within recent years, also, investigation and experimentation have been directed toward the solution of some of the complicated problems involved in the conservation of soil moisture in these arid regions. Actual additions to existing knowledge of the subject have been relatively few, but public attention has been directed to the work to such an extent that the idea prevails that much more is now possible in the way of utilizing a limited rainfall than was ever possible before. There is some foundation for such a conclusion, but nothing to war- rant many of the exaggerated statements now current. The conquest of the arid "West, to be successful and to be accomplished without large and costly failures, must be made slowly and by the careful ap- plication of definitely ascertained facts. The boundaries of existing 28529— No. 103—07 m 2 7 8 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. settlements may be gradually extended, but any wholesale attempt to colonize large areas of this arid land with people accustomed to farm- ing only in humid regions or not accustomed to farming at all is almost certain to result in disastrous failure. The region just east of the Rocky Mountains has already been the scene of some large booms in arid lands. One of the first of these, which occurred from 1880 to 1885, was partly the result of a series of years of relatively high precipitation and partly the result of very extensive railroad building. A series of drier years following drove back many of the new settlers after they had lost all their pos- sessions while waiting for a rainy season to come again. There have since been a number of smaller booms, which have affected different parts of the region at different times, as a result of temporary periods of increased rainfall or some other local cause. One of these, in the two or three years following 1890, began to assume large proportions when the financial crisis of 1893 and the severe drought of 1894 com- bined to drive back most of the new settlers. As each of these early waves of settlement receded, it left behind some few pioneers, who, by dint of harder work, by the use of better judgment in selecting land, or by turning to stock raising and using as range land the farms of their less persistent neighbors, succeeded in holding out through the dry years. The region just west of the Rocky Mountains, particularly that portion of it lying within the State of Utah, was first settled by farmers who depended exclusively upon irrigation for crop produc- tion. The extensions of their settlements were naturally made along those streams from which the diversion of water for irrigation was possible. These first settlements were made about 1850, and for the next thirty years irrigation farming and stock raising on the open range constituted the only agriculture of the region. In the decade of 1870-1880, some pioneer attempts were made to grow crops without irrigation in and around some of the valleys of the Great Basin. These attempts finally showed the way to the utilization of large tracts of fertile land for which no irrigation water could be had. The first efforts were relatively few and unimportant, but as the country became more thickly settled and new irrigation enterprises became scarce and expensive more attention was directed to the development of these nonirrigable lands. This development was begun by growing crops to supplement those grown on the irrigated land. Almost no attempts were made at first to establish farms on the dry lands, so that the first failures, by which the methods of success were learned, were not so disastrous as they might have been had it been necessary to build homes and make other improvements independent of any irrigation opportunities. It is 103 LOCATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. 9 manifestly iiiiich easier to experiment in dn^ farminij, to gamble on the "weather as it were, if one has an irrigated farm to fall back upon in adverse seasons. Even where it is possible by the use of windmills or the development of springs or small streams to irrigate relatively small fields during a protracted drought, the settler is able to tide over times when without such a resource complete failure would be inevitable. When the utilization of the dry lands can proceed from well-established agricultural centers, such as irrigated sections, in- stead of having to start unsupported in the midst of the dry lands, the risk of disastrous failure is greatly reduced. From the modest and tentative beginnings of a third of a century ago there has grown a well-established system of farming in some sections of the country west of the Rocky Mountains. There are in this great intermountain area three fairly well defined regions in which dry farming" is now practiced to a considerable extent. For convenience of designation, these regions may be named the Great Basin, the Columbia River Valley, and the interior valley of Cali- fornia. Each of these areas includes localities with widely differing conditions of soil, climate, and agi'iculture, and each, taken as a whole, differs from the others in important jiarticulars, yet they have some important features in common not shared by the Great Plains region, which includes most of the arid lands east of the Rockv Mountains. LOCATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. The agricultural region referred to as the Great Basin area (fig. 1) occupies a portion of the great depression between the Rocky Moun- tains and the Sierra Nevada. To the north of the Great Basin lies the drainage basin of the Columbia River, while to the southward the drainage is collected by the Colorado River. The Great Basin proper is well defined topographically. It includes a large irregular body of land lying chiefly in the States of Utah, Nevada, Oregon, and California, of which the drainage finds no outlet to the ocean, but instead collects in various lakes and sinks, from which it evaporates. « The term " dry farming " is a recent addition to agricultural literature, but since it meets a real need it will probably find a permanent place. There is some difference of opinion as to just what the expression means. It is ordinarily understood to mean farming in an arid or semiarid region without irrigation, but this is often confusing, since " arid " is at best a relative expression and irrigation is often used even in humid regions. All good farming involves at least some tillage of the soil, which accomplishes several purposes at once. The soil is aerated, weeds are killed, the tilth is improved, and moisture is conserved. Sometimes one and sometimes another of these objects is the chief aim, and sometimes all are important. In dry farming, however, the one object of para- mount importance is the conservation of soil moisture, and all the tillage opera- tions are directed to this end. i03 10 DRY FAEMII^G IN THE GREAT BASIN. The Great Salt Lake of Utah and a large depression in Nevada, formerly occupied by Lake Lahontan, are the two most important drainage centers, but there are numerous smaller lakes and sinks quite independent of these. In addition to the agricultural land in the Great Basin proper there is a considerable area of arable land lying betAveen the eastern side of the Great Basin and the Rocky Mountains. This constitutes the northern portion of the Colorado Eiver drainage basin, but in view of the similarity of conditions pre- vailing over this region and the near-by Great Basin it seems proper to include both in a discussion of the agriculture of the section, and in the present paper the term " Great Basin area " is used to include not only the Great Basin proper, but also the region between it and the Eocky Mountains. By far the larger part of the arable land of the Great Basin area lies at an alti- tude of more than 4,200 feet above sea level. The topog- raph}'^ is broken by numer- ous mountain ranges, so that the arable land is con- fined to the intervening val- leys and wash plains. These wash plains often occur as high mesas, with a gently rolling topography except where they are cut by the courses of streams and re- cent erosions. The valleys of water courses are now all more or less developed by irriga- tion, while the higher mesas which can not be reached by gravity canals remain to be utilized without irrigation, if at all. In the eastern j^art of the Great Basin area, where most of the dry farming is now done, the vallej^s and mesas are relatively small. One or two of them are 15 or 20 miles across, but many are only 1 to 4 miles across and of varying lengths. Often they lie between high timber-covered mountains that furnish perennial streams and a tim- ber supply, as well as valuable range land. In other cases they are surrounded by relatively barren hills, which afford neither water nor timber and yield but little range. In the northern and central portions of this area the higher and better-watered arable lands are covered with sagebrush {Artemisia tridentata) with its gray-green foliage. In the swales on the roU- 103 Fig. 1.— Map showing the location of the Great Basin. EXPERIMENTS TN DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. 11 ino; mesas the dark ^con of the rabbit brush (Chrysothamiius) makes a pleasing contrast in the hindscape. Among this shrul)by growth various grasses naturally occur, Agropyron, Bouteloua, Stipa, and Bromus being the genera more commonly represented. In a few localities where conditions are favorable these grasses sometimes form a compact sod, but usually they occur in scattered tufts. On exposed situations and along the foothills, cedars of various species occur in scattering groups, usually nuirking rock outcrops or stony soil. In the lower valleys, particularly in the heavier and salty lands, the grease- wood {Sarcolxitus cermiculdtus) replaces the sagebrush as the char- acteristic shrub, with intermingling grasses or sedges where enough moisture is available and with various saltbushes and saltworts, species of Atriplex and Dondia, where moisture is scant or alkali abundant. In the southern part of the Great Basin area the sagebrush is replaced on the better lands by the creosote bush {Covillea triden- tata), while the lower and more alkaline lands are occupied almost exclusively by the greasewood and the saltworts mentioned above. Along the water courses willoAvs and cottonwoods are common, but aside from these the arable lands are treeless and easily brought under cultivation. EXPERIMENTS IN DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. The first agricultural settlements in the Great Basin were made along the courses of streams, where water could be diverted for irri- gation, and apparently for a long time no one thought farming with- out irrigation possible. As a coiTsequence the early agriculture of the region was confined to relatively intensive irrigation farming and to ranging cattle and sheep on the higher lands. Irrigation farming included the production of most of the staple crops common to Amer- ican agriculture, but with considerabh^ more emphasis on wheat and alfalfa than on any other crops. According to the census of 1900 the State of Utah had somewhat more than 686,000 acres in speci- fied crops. Of these, about 190,000 acres were devoted to wheat, about 270,000 acres to alfalfa, and nearly 115,000 acres to hay and other forage crops; in other words, nearly 85 per cent of the total acreage w-as devoted to these crops. Unlike the other irrigated sec- tions of the AVest, the Great Basin area produces a considerable acre- age of oats under irrigation. The area devoted to this crop in the Great Basin in 1899 was slightly more than 43,000 acres, while barley, which is the most important cereal besides wheat usually grown under irrigation in the West, was grown on less than 9,000 acres of Utah land. Corn is grown only to a limited extent, there being reported for 1899 only 11,000 acres, while 10,000 acres were devoted to potatoes and 5,000 acres to miscellaneous vegetables. Sugar beets 103 12 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIlSr. and orchard fruits are important features among the agricultural industries of the area. The latter are both intensive crops, yielding high returns per acre. There were grown 7,500 acres of sugar beets and 16,000 acres of orchard fruits in 1899. These areas seem small for a whole State, but it should be remembered that only a relatively small part of the State has yet been utilized for agriculture. There remains much valuable land to be developed, both with and without irrigation. During the decade from 1889 to 1899 the irrigated acre- age^in Utah increased 138.8 per cent, or from 263,473 to 629,293 acres, and progress has been fully as rapid since, so that these figures may be increased safely by 50 per cent in estimating the present status of the agriculture of the area, and the indications are that the acreage devoted to dry farming has increased more rapidly even than the irrigated acreage. In the State of Xevada, which lies almost wholly in the Great Basin, there is at present practically no farming without irrigation. The Twelfth Census reports for the State for 1899 a total in specified crops of 328,458 acres, of which 323,352 acres, or all but 5,000 acres, Avere irrigated. The difference, or unirrigated land, was nearly all in wild hay and probably irrigated naturally by overflow. There are without doubt numerous valleys in Nevada where dry farming is possible, but there is no evidence that any of these have yet been developed. The portion of Oregon included in the Great Basin is as yet almost entirely without settlements, so that whatever resources it may have in the way of lands adapted to dry farming are still unknown. Probably the most striking feature of the agricultural practice of Utah farmers is the lack of an intertilled annual crop to be grown in rotation with the cereals and hay. The discrepancy between the com- bined acreage of the three important intertilled crops (corn, potatoes, and sugar beets) as compared with the cereal and hay crops is very marked, there being only about 30,000 acres of this class of crops as compared with more than 550,000 acres of cereals, alfalfa, and tame grasses, or 1 acre of intertilled crops to 18 acres of the others. This discrepancy shows the acute need of finding varieties of such crops as corn and sorghum that can be used profitably in rotation with the cereals and forage crops, for it is difficult to secure the best results in general farming without the use, at least occasionally, of an intertilled crop in the rotation. This is particularly true in farm- ing without irrigation, for crops that can not be cultivated during the growing season permit the waste by direct evaporation of a large amount of soil moisture, while with crops that can be intertilled there should be but little more moisture removed from the soil than is required by the crop itself. 103 EXPERIME.^TS IN DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. 13 PRIVATE EXPERIMENTS IX DRY FARMING. It is not the present purpose to devote niiicli space to an account of the beginning of dry farming in the Great Basin, but it may be said in passing that it was jirobably first systematically tried in the Cache Valley, near Logan, Utah, about 1870, or shortly before. The first attempts resulted in failure, but in a few years enough had been learned to justify a continuation and even a considerable extension of the practice. The idea seems to have spread slowly at first, and it has been only since 1885, or later, that it has reached any appre- ciable projDortions, even in the Cache Valley, where water for irriga- tion was until recently ample for the needs of all the settlers. Within the past two decades, and particularly during the last one, there has been an enormous increase in the acreage farmed without irrigation, until practically all the arable land in this valley is now utilized either with or without irrigation. The Twelfth Census, which gives the acreage of crops grown in 1899, reports a total of 58,658 acres irrigated in Cache County, which includes the Cache Valley and~little else, while the total acreage in specified crops for the same year is nearly twice that area, so that for that year the acreage farmed without irrigation nearly equaled the irrigated acreage. The increase in acreage devoted to both kinds of farming has been rapid since 1899, and it is probable that at present there is more dry-farmed land in this valley than irrigated land. In the Bear River Valley and in the valley of the Malade River there is also a large area of dry-farmed land, which is rapidly extending northward and west- ward. Along the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake, on the lower benches of the Wasatch Mountains, there are isolated patches of land farmed without irrigation, but in some of these cases, at least, there is prob- ably subirrigation from seepage water. On the foothills of the west side of the Jordan River Valley, between Utah Lake and Great Salt Lake, and also in Utah County east of Utah Lake, there is now^ con- siderable dry farming on the higher lands. Much of this is of very recent development. Directly south of Great Salt Lake, in Tooele County,' Utah, there is a broad valley in which dry farming is now 2:)racticed to a con- siderable extent. In the eastern part of Juab County and south of Utah Lake, bet^veen Xephi and Levan, there has been a very rapid development of dry farming within the past six years. The accompanying sketch map (fig. 2), which shows approxi- mately the location of the irrigated land in the State of Utah, may serve to show also the location of the land farmed without irrigation, since it is only around the edges of the irrigated land that dry farm- ing is at present carried on. 103 14 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. In the southwestern part of Utah, in Iron and Washington counties, dry farming is still in the experimental stage, but there are several valleys in these counties where success seems assured if proper meth- ods are followed. In the southeastern part of the State, in San Juan County, there is a high plateau extending eastward into Colorado which probably contains a million acres of arable land adapted to dry farming. (See PI. II, fig. 2.) This part of the State is difficult of access and is at present but little known. In addition to the localities mentioned, there are many others in Utah and western Colorado where dry farming is, or may be, successfully car- ried on, at least supplementary to irri- gation, if not independently. THE UTAH ARID EX- PERIMENT FARMS. 1 u/A/r/i I ' The importance or dry farming as a factor in the devel- oi^ment of the Stats of Utah has been recognized by the people of that State to the extent that the legislature has ni'ade direct appro- priations to estab- lish and maintain experiment farms for working out sci- entifically the best methods of tillage and rotation and for testing crops and varieties to find those best suited to local conditions. Six such farms have been established in representative parts of the State ; their approximate locations are shown on the sketch map, figure 2. These farms were provided for by an act of the Utah legislature approved March 6, 1903. Each of them contains 40 acres of land, is equipped with the necessary farm machinery, and is well fenced, but has no other improvements. The work is directed by the officers of the State Agricultural Experiment Station at Logan. Utah, while each farm is under the direct charge of a local superintendent. All L.:v:_.l._L._.i._..^=£:l fiG. 2.— Sketch map of Utah, showing the irrigated areas according to the census of 1900 and the location of arid experiment farms. 103 LOCAL CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT DRY FARMING. 15 the labor required, Avhether of men or teams, is employed by the dav or by tlie liour from near-by farms. Xo live stock is kept on the farms. On each of these farms systematic experiments have been planned with a view to working out some of the more important tillage and crop i^roblems, both general and local. The land is laid off in long, narrow strips, which are subdivided crosswise into plats ranging from one-fifth to one-third of an acre in size. Except for a fcAv experiments, these strips or series of plats are alternately put in crop and given a clean summer fallow. Plate I, figure 1, shows one of these experiment farms with the' alternate series in crop and in fallow, while Plate II, figure 1, shows a portion of one of the fallow series and the Avay the surface mulch is maintained. The plans of the experiments and descriptions of the stations have been ])ublished by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, and the reports of re- sults obtained are to be published from time to time, as required by the law under which they were established." These experiment stations, representing as they do a variety of conditions Avithin the State, promise to be of great value in solving some of the problems of dr^?^ farming, particularly if they can be continued for a considerable length of time. Erom the fact that the same general plan of experiments is being followed on each of them, opportunity is offered to get a perspective on the results that would be quite impossible with only one or two such stations. In addition to this, these farms serve in a measure as demonstrations of what can be done and how best to do it in each of the sections where they are located. Such demonstrations are of the greatest value to a community, for the lessons of proper tillage methods for moisture conservation are hard to learn except b}^ costly experiment or con- tinued observation. LOCAL CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT DRY FARMING. From the standpoint of dry farming the most important feature of climate is the precipitation; its amount, its distribution through the year, the variation in amount from year to year, and the way it falls — whether chiefly as snow, as frequent light showers, or as oc- casional torrential rains. These factors are, of course, all closelj'^ interrelated with others, such as temperature, atmospheric humidity, wind movement, and the character of the soil. The success or failure of dry farming in the Great Basin is largely influenced by local conditions of climate and soil, so that a careful o"Arid Farming in Utah," Bui. 91. Expt. Sta., Utab, January, 1905, and " Memorandum of Plans for Arid Farm Investigations," Circulars No. 1 and 3, Expt. Sta., Utah. April. 1904. and April, 1905. 28529— No. 103— 07 m 3 16 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. * investigation of these conditions is Avell warranted, not only by any- one studying the subject as a whole, but also by anyone proposing to begin such farming in that region. Some of these conditions, such as the character and annual distribution of the rainfall, are much the same for the whole region, but other conditions, such as the actual amount of the rainfall, are largely influenced by the local topography and therefore vary greatly even within a limited area. PRECIPITATION MAINLY IN WINTER. In the Great Basin, as in nearl}'- all of that part of the United States lying west of the Kocky Mountains, the larger part of the precipitation occurs during the winter rather than during the sum- mer months. In this respect the climate differs from that of the great semiarid region east of the Rocky Mountains. Contrary to the generally accepted opinion, there seems to be good reason for believing tliat more economical use of a limited rainfall is possible when the larger part of it takes place during the winter than Avhen the rains are mostly, confined to the summer months. This is particularly true when the rainfall is too light to produce a crop every year, so that summer fallowing or alternate-year crop- ping is necessary to conserve the scanty supply. There are several reasons for this. When the rain comes during the cool weather a much smaller percentage of it is immediatelj' evaporated than in warmer j^eriods, so that more of it soaks into the ground. When rain falls on the hot, dry ground in midsummer it takes at least one-fourth of an inch to wet the surface and establish connection with the moist soil below, while on the heavier soils at least one-half inch is needed to penetrate the dry surface. After the rain has ceased a considerable quantity of water evaporates before the surface is dry enough to cultivate, if cultivation is possi- ble, while with standing grain and similar crops the direct evapora- tion from the soil continues until all moisture within reach of the surface that has not been taken up by the plants meanwhile is lost into the air. With a favorable soil — a soil with sufficient fine material to have a high water-holding capacity, yet with enough coarse material to IDcrmit easy penetration of rain water — the best use of a limited rainfall is possible when it occurs during the cooler months, either as snow or as slow rains of one-half an inch or more at a time, so as to give a maximum of penetration and a minimum of run-off and evaporation. This is, of course, not true for all climates nor for all soil types. Where the winters are long and severe, so that the ground is deeply frozen, wintei- precipitation would be largely wasted in surface run-off and by evaporation before the ground 103 LOCAL CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT DRY FARMING. 17 thawed out in the spring; while on shallow soils or soils Avith a relatively small amount of tine material, and consequently a low water-holding capacity, the rain that falls, except during the grow- ing season, is largely lost by percolation to depths beyond the reach of plants. It is well known that moisture may be lost very rapidly from a soil if the surface is not stirred soon after a rain. It is, therefore, only with intertilled crops that rain can be economically utilized during the hot growing season. For crops that can not be inter- tilled, such as wheat, oats, and barley, the greatest economy of soil moisture is possible if no rain falls after the crop is sown, or at least after the last surface tillage is given." "Where the soil is fairly heavy and deep it can hold available sufficient moisture to mature any ordinary crop, provided losses by direct evaporation are nearly or quite prevented. The growing season of the ordinary crop plants is set within fairly definite limits. If moisture is not supplied at about the time it is needed, the i)lants either die outright or are injured beyond recovery. In farming with a limited rainfall there is therefor nmch less risk involved where it is possible to store in the soil during a whole year enough w^ater to carry a crop to maturity than where it is necessary to depend on the chances of rains at just the proper time during the growing season. There is nnich less chance of a year-long drought than of a drought of two or three weeks during the summer when rain is badly needed for crops. In figure 3 is shown the average monthly precipitation at four representative points in the eastern part of the Great Basin, while for purposes of comparison similar diagrams are shown of the pre- cipitation at four representative points in the Great Plains area which lies on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. The dia- grams are arranged to show the average amount of jjrecipitation in inches of water for each month in the year, and the months are arranged in the order of the calendar year, with January on the left and December on the right. It may be seen at a glance that the seasonal distribution of the precipitation is strikingly different in the tAvo regions represented. In the Great Basin the larger part of the rain falls in the autumn, winter, and early spring, while except at Parowan ^ the midsummer rainfall is almost negligible. On the other hand, the characteristic o In the ease of autumn-sown cereals it is not only practicable but decidedly advantageous to barrow the crop in the spring as late as it can be done without injuring the grain. & Parowan is evidently far enovigh south to share somewhat in the torrential summer rains that often occur in Arizona and New Mexico. 103 18 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. feature, of the Great Plains climate is its relatively heavy summer rainfall and its dry winters. ANNUAL VARIATION IN RAINFALL. There are no rainfall records covering long periods of time for the places in the Great Basin where dry farming is now attracting the most attention. The earlier settlers were interested chiefly in irriga- tion farming and gave but little at- tention to rainfall. With few excep- tions such records as are in existence have been made in cities or towns that were located with reference to irriga- tion or transporta- tion facilities rather than in rep- resentative agri- < ..: * o, ^ if ^ yj Q X ^ "^i - 3 3 0\ - i2 § 1 2^ 1^ ■■!- 1 "^ .-^■- ■■I li. 1 II 1 ^^^^H^l wf^ Li LOG/} A/, 13 YEAPS ANNUAl Al/E/ ijT/tH 3/SM/l/?C/f. A/. DA (fSCOPO 29YEAPS PECOPD MGE /3.4 ANNUAL AS/EPAGE /7 7 ■ 3 1?^" I 1 "0 ^O ■ I J V^ r"_M- j^H 1 t — ^H~ ■ _ ^^H L- ,^ 1 ^^^H-- \wUk ■l K II r. 7 .a rOOELC, 9 YE/IPS n ANNl/Al AYE ur/)H ECOPD PAGE/4.3 >* PIERFE.S.DAh 3S YEAPS PECOPi VNUAL AYEPAGE /6 _ 3 3 ■ Y> §, . ' M L 2^ § _■■ - M L- ^ ^.i^Hi' • I K 1^ ' ^ — iH i. M ■ t\ L£t/AA/. /4--/S YEAPS ANNUAL AIYEA UT/iH NORTH PUTTE. PECOPD 3S VEAPS PECOm lAGE /S.3 ANNUAL Al^EPAGE / tVEB. 7.7 L J 1 3 3 ■ L W 1," ■ ■ 2^ 1 ■ " -i L. ",^ ''lllil ■■ ■ llii -1 m /3-/4^ YE APS ANNUAL Al/E V UT/iH DODGE. K/lAfS/IS 'P£COPO 29-30 YEAPS ffECOPO PAGE //.8 ANNUAL At^EPAGE 20.3 cultural regions, and consequently the available rec- ords are of limited agricultural appli- tion. The following charts show the total annual pre- cipitation at four places in Utah where dry farm- ing: is now carried on to some extent. In fact, the two towns Logan and L e V a n probably represent the best and most extensive development of dry farming in that region. Such records as these are valuable in proportion to their length, for when long continued they furnish a basis for interpreting present condi- tions Avithout which wrong judgment would be almost certain. 103 Fig. 3. -Diagrams showing the average monthly precipitation at some representative points in the semiarid West. LOCAL CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT DRY FARMING. 19 Logan, Utah, is situated near the northern boundary of the State, near the eastern side of the Cache valley, in which dry farminsf has been carried on for nearly a third of a century, and it is now prob- ably the most important dry-farming section in the State. Except on the eastern side the valley is surrounded only by low hills, so that the rainfall is probably very evenly distributed over it. The record shown in the diagi'am (fig. 4) covers a period of fourteen years, from 1893 to 1906, inclusive, the annual average being 15 inches. It will be noted that for the period of record previous to 1900 the variation from the mean was slight, but in 1900 the amount of rain was nearh' double what it was in 1905. Tooele, Utah, is situated near the eastern edge of a broad valley directly south of Great Salt Lake. This valley, which lies at an altitude of about 4,500 feet, is one of the largest in the State in which dry farming is pos- sible. The region around Tooele has not been used for dry farming until within the last three or four 3'ears. Records are available for the last ten years onl3^ The annual average for that time is 15 inches, while the ex- tremes range from about 10 inches to slighth^ over 20 inches. (See fig, 5.) It will be noted in this case, also, that the rain- fall during 1900 was the greatest recorded, al- though the difference is not so marked as in the record for Logan. Levan, Utah, is situated in a comparatively narrow valley in the central part of the State, a short distance south of Nephi. This valley is in one of the older settled sections of the State, and since 1900 it has been the scene of very rapid development of dry farming. This record also shows an unusually large rainfall during 1906, which was exceeded only in 1895. (See fig. 0.) It is clear from such a record as this that frequent crop failures can be avoided only by tillage methods by which a reserve of moisture is stored in the soil for the use of crops during the drier years. Parowan, Utah, is situated near the southern part of the State in one of the smaller valleys east of the Escalante Desert. The annual average for the fourteen years recorded is 12.5 inches, while the ex- tremes range from 21 inches as the highest to 7 inches as the lowest. JOS 1 25 20 15 10 5 - 1 25 20 15 10 5 / i j 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^_^ s ML k— 1 ■/IA/_ f — -/- — -\ .__, "7 -^ n — f— -~ \ / > .--'^ ^"""^ ^ ^ - // LT/7 ■uoe ^,^ 500 F£l — LUb^/v. ui^n 16 94 9 6 9 8 19 00 2 4 6 Fig. 4.— Diagram showing the total annual precipitation at Logan, Utah, 1893-1906. 20 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. In this case, again, the unusual rainfall of 1906 is shown. It becomes apparent from a comparison of this (fig. 7) and the preceding dia- grams that the rainfall of 1906 was much above the average in the Great Basin. The relatively large rainfall of 1906 has stimulated local interest in dry farming in a way that nothing else could do. The wonderfully large crops obtained during the last season with- out irrigation, together with the recent unusual interest in dry farm- ing, have combined to convince the local public that irrigation is rapidly becoming unnecessary in that region. In fact it is not gen- erall}^ realized how much more rain there was during the last year than usually falls. It is true that the present agitation in favor of dry farming in Utah was actively l)egun in 1902 and 1903, when the rainfall was rather below the aver- age, so that while the greater rain- fall of last year has probably en- couraged unAvarranted hopes as to what can be done without irriga- tion, yet the actual extension of farming has doubtless been much greater than it would have been without the increased rainfall. There can be no doubt that there for the records of rainfall show no 1 20 15 10 5' 1 20 15 10 5 1 1 y *\ 1 \, j / \ \, 1 / \ J s / - — — J S"*" '/" N / s. / N ^ \, / s ^ \ y L TOO£LE, UT/li / ~ > ■ 1 1 1898 1900 02 04 6 Fig. 5.— Diagram showing the total annu- al precipitation at Tooele, Utah, 1S97-1906. wdll soon be drier years again, reason for believing that the climate is changing. INFLUENCE OF LOCAL TOPOGRAPHY ON RAINFALL. The air currents that bring rain into the Great Basin come mainly from the west, saturated with moisture from the Pacific Ocean. A large part of this water in the lower atmosphere is precipitated as this air passes over the high Sierra Nevada range, but enough mois- ture is soon recovered either from the upper air or from the earth for each of the successive mountain ranges in the Great Basin to receive its share of rain, the amount in each case increasing with the height of the ranges and their distance apart. Thus, just as the western part of the Great Basin is more arid than the eastern part, so the western side of each valley in the Great Basin is drier than the eastern side; or. conversely, the western slope and foothills of a mountain range receive more rainfall than the eastern slope, the difference depending somewhat upon the height of the range. (See fig. 8.) The following table illustrates this phenomenon. The town of Deseret lies well out in a broad valley which is much too dry for any 103 LOCAL CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT DRY FARMING. 21 farming except with irrigation. About 30 miles southeast of De.seret is the town of Filhnore, which lies close to the western slope of a mountain range, the crest of which is 10,000 feet above sea level. In the first jiart of the table is shown the total annual precipitation at Deseret and Fillmore for all the years for which there are records, and also the dif ference in favor of Fillmore due to the effect of the mountains. In the second part of the table Fillmore is com- pared with Ricli- field, which is only 16 miles away, but on the opposite side of the mountain lange. xiere aiSO no. O.— Diagram showing the total annual precipitation at Levan, all the available Utah, i890-i906. records for both places are given. In this case the difference is even greater than is shown in the first case. Such facts show plainly that it is useless to estimate the probable rainfall at anj^ place in this region where records have not been kept luiless the toi^ography is well known and direct comparison is possible wdth a similar location where the facts are known. Table I. — Differences in total annual precipitation between points in Utah located near each other, arranged to shoir the inflnence of iopographi/. 1 25 20 15 10 5 ■ 1 25 20 15 10 5 y / / \ I / \ / / \ / / \ / / \ / \ / / \ \ _ \ ^^^ ^ Afi£">*A/ "~/ . ' — "T ~T ■\ , '/ — 1 / \ / \ / / 1 \ y,.^ / / ' \ / ^ / \ / / ' ct/ylA/ /jryfu A ^..A.. r/y/l/i Ceer 1890 92 94 96 98 1900 02 04 06 De.seret and Fillmore. Fillmore and Kichtield. Year. Deseret (altitude, 4,600 feet ) . Fillmore (altitude, 5,700 feet). Difference in favor of Fillmore. Fillmore (altitude, 5,700 feet). Richfield (altitude, 5,308 feet) . Difference in favor of Fillmore. 1893 Inches. 7.6 8.0 Inches. 1-5.6 13.4 Inches. 8.0 5.4 Inches. Inches. Inches. 1894 1898 14.6 14.5 9.3 4.5 8.3 1.8 10.1 1899 6.2 1900 5.4 9.0 4.8 7.0 7.1 9.7 10.5 9.3 12.9 11.9 12.0 12.1 16.1 20.0 3.9 3.9 7.1 5.0 5 6.4 9.5 7.5 1901 Vim.....!.................... 11.9 6.6 5.3 1903 1904 12.1 5.2 6.9 1905 1906« '. 20.0 6.6 13.4 Average 7.7 13.8 6.1 13.7 .5.5 8.2 » July records missing. 103 22 DKY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. METHODS OF INTERSEASON TILLAGE. The methods of farming now in use on the dry lands of the Great Basin area are largely the results of private experiments, and con- sequently thej possess some local peculiarities. It should be kept in mind that there are some unusual features of climate and soil in this region, such as the relatively light summer rainfall and a deep heavy soil that holds large quantities of water. Deep plowing, frequent cultivation, and alternate-year cropping have been used in retaining soil moisture, ^^lieat sown in the autumn has been the chief crop grown on the dry lands, and for this reason the land is plowed in the late summer as soon as possible after the crop has been removed. The land is left in the rough furrow all winter, and as soon as the winter rains have either soaked in or dried off, surface cultivation is begun. This cultivation is done chief!}' with a disk harroAv, though other implements are also used. Sometimes a shallow summer plowing is given to kill and turn under any weeds that have escaped the lighter cultivation. In the late summer the spike - toothed har- r o w and other smoothing i m p 1 e - ments are used to prepare a fine seed bed, and the next crop is sown in September or early in October. Since the winter rains compact the soil and get it into such a condition that the direct loss of water would be easy, it is often found desirable to lighth^ harrow the wheat crop in the early spring, for after it starts to grow nothing more can be done toward preventing the loss of water until after harvest. Since wheat growing involves onlj^ the simpler farm oj^erations. which may be performed on a large scale, there have been special inducements to use large machinery and to econo- mize the use of men. Large gang plows and large harrows are in common use, and the grain header is used almost exclusively in harvesting the crop. In a few cases steam is used as motive power for plowing, and apparenth^ with success. A'^Tiere used it is always Avith a traction engine, which draws the plows behind it instead of working with a cable and operating from both sides of the field. Xo reliable data are at hand for estimating the relative cost of 103 1 20 15 10 S i 20 15 10 5 1 \ / \ / \ / \ S, / \ MEAN ^ -V- "7^ L — r-fc.»^ , _- f- — —. \- u. « — — -y- V. ••-. s / \ / \ / f-*^,^ / \ / / s. / \ \ / V, / \ / r -/>/ i Scale: /.OOO.OOO 60.000 Fig. 8.— Profile sketch showing the relative positions of Deseret, Fillmore, and Richfield, Utah. Where subsoiling is practiced, the use of a subsoiling attachment in a gang plow is found to be not only practicable but pref- erable. One very satisfactory disk gang plow that is made for use wdth five or six horses has tAvo large disks for general use, but when subsoiling is to be done the front disk can be removed and a subsoiler attached in its place. This position of the subsoiler has several advantages. It leaves a smooth-bottomed furrow for the furrow horses to walk in and it also immediately covers the subsoil that is loosened by the subsoil plow, thus preventing a considerable loss of moisture that might result from leaving this loosened subsoil exposed to the air until the next round of the plow. There is some question as to whether subsoil plowing is worth what it costs, and many farmers are of the opinion that deep plowing without subsoiling is the better practice. The ordinary disk harrow is, of course, in very general use, not only for pulverizing the soil in preparing a seed bed but also to main- tain the clean fallow wdiich is so essential to success in this type of farming 103 24 DEY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. The spike-toothed harrow is also used ahnost universally, not only as a supplement to the disk harrow but also to kill weeds and break the surface crust after rains. In addition to the smoothing harrow for finely pulverizing the surface soil, some farmers have used with advantage a plank drag, usually of home construction, made of three or four planks fastened together rigidly, one behind another, and with the edges overlapping like the weatherboards of a house. This implement crushes the hard lumps and tends to level the land at the same time. For still further smoothing and pulverizing the seed bed a brush harrow is sometimes used. This, too, is of home construction. It is made of brush rigidly fastened to a plank or log in such a way that the loose ends of the brush bear on the soil, acting much like a coarse broom. This brush harrow, when used after a plank drag, leaves the surface soil in excellent tilth. , For preparing new land for the plow, some sort of implement is often needed to remove the sagebrush. For this purpose a com- mon railroad rail is often used, with a team hitched to each end and the rail dragged sideways across the land, breaking down the brush. This may be followed by a heavy rake, which gathers up the loosened brush into piles or windrows for burning. Several other implements have been devised for removing sagebrush, among them a heavy form of revolving hayrake, which breaks down and partly collects the brush in one operation. MAINTENANCE OF A CLEAN SUMMER FALLOW. The term " summer fallow " is used with different meanings in various parts of the country. In the Great Plains area, especially in the northern part, it is applied to the practice of letting the land lie idle and permitting the growth of weeds durii;g the spring months, so that a plowing in June will not only kill these weeds but by turning them under add some much-needed humus to the soil. This June plowing also brings to the surface more weed seeds, which soon germi- nate and may be destroyed subsequently either by surface tillage or by fall plowing. The chief object of the summer fallow as used in the Great Plains area is rather to free the land from weeds than to conserve the moisture. In other sections of the country the term " fallow " is applied to the practice of leaving the land entirely undisturbed either for the whole or a part of the year. In the Great Basin, however, the summer fallow is used chiefly for moisture conservation. As has been pointed out, the bulk of the precipitation of this region comes in the autumn, winter, and spring months, the summer months being almost free from rain. It is therefore possible to establish early 103 METHODS OF INTKRSEASON TILLAGE. 25 in the season a very effective dust mulch on the surface of the soil, which is not likely to be disturbed by summer rains and which re- quires only enough cultivation to keep weeds from growing. (See PI. II, fig. 1.) The maintenance of this surface mulch is an expen- sive operation even under these conditions, for weed seeds germinate readily in the moist soil below the surface, push up through the dry mulch, and unless quickly killed dissipate large quantities of valuable soil moisture. It is quite as important to keep weeds froui developing to any considerable size as it is to maintain a surface mulch that will check direct evaporation. If these weeds are killed at short intervals by light surface cultivation they use but little water, and it is also much cheaper to destroy them when small than after they have grown to considerable size. It must always be taken into account that the surface soil mulch, which is so necessary to moisture conservation, is possible only where the soil is sufficiently heavy not to be blown away by summer winds. These summer winds, which in some regions are almost continuous and sometimes of high velocity, often make a clean summer fallow altogether impracticable. It is also extremely doubtful if the requi- site summer fallowing is practicable on very light soils, for even the milder summer winds would do serious damage where such a soil in a fine state of tilth is exposed. THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TEXTURE. The water-holding capacity of a soil depends largely upon its physical texture and is also influenced to some extent hj the amount of organic matter present. For instance, a heavy clay soil contain- ing a large amount of humus might hold 30 per cent of water and still be in workable condition, while sanely soil having 10 per cent of water might seem very wet. It is therefore obvious that where success in dry farming depends upon the storage in the soil within the reach of plants of enough water to carry a crop to maturity, the water-holding capacity of the soil becomes a matter of the first importance. Table II. — Increased moisture occasioned hy 1 inch of rain distributed through various depths of soil, tveighing 85 pounds per cuhic foot. Depth of di.stribu- tion. Proportion of moisture. Depth of distribu- tion. Proportion of moisture. Inches. 1 3 6 12 Per cent. 75 25 12. 5 6.2 Inches. 24 36 48 60 Per cent. 3.1 2 1.5 1.2 A cubic foot of heavy loam soil perfectly dry is estimated to weigh 85 pounds. A cubic foot of water weighs about 62| pounds. 103 26 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. The water required to cover 1 square foot to the depth of 1 inch weighs about 5i pounds, while an acre-inch of water weighs about 113 tons. One per cent of moisture per cubic foot of soil is equivalent to 0.84 pound of water, while 1 per cent per acre- foot of soil equals about 18 tons of water. The preceding table shows the relation between rainfall and soil moisture as stated in percentages. These figures are useful in com- puting the potential effect of rains of various amounts, assuming that all of the rain enters the soil. Estimating that a wheat crop, for instance, can use moisture 5 feet deep in the soil, it will be seen that a sandy soil would be able to hold available onh' about 540 tons of water per acre, while a heavy loam would hold available about 1,350 tons per acre, or a dif- ference of more than 800 tons of water per acre in favor of the heavy soil. These figures show the imi:)ortance of selecting only the heavier soils for dry farming where the storage of water from one season to another is necessary. Under their virgin conditions the heavier and better soils of a semiarid region are rarely wet to a depth of more than 3 or 4 feet — often 2 feet or less. With the surface soil undisturbed so that this moisture can move upward and dissipate by direct evaporation, and with the natural vegetation using large quantities, it is only a short time after the rains cease before all the available water is lost from the soil. If this same land is broken by the plow to a depth of 5 or 6 inches, more of the rain water or melting snow soaks into it and pene- trates far below the limit of virgin conditions. If, in addition to the first plowing, the surface soil is stirred frequently, a surface mulch is formed which is nearly as effectual in checking direct evaporation as a coat of oil on the surface of water. The moisture thus held in the soil continues downward, wetting soil that in some cases has not been wet for centuries. Since the total annual rainfall in many dry-farming regions is less than 15 inches, of which but little more than half can be secured and held even under favorable conditions, there is ample storage capacity in deep and heavy soils for all the normal rainfall of two years. In short, the soil of a semiarid region may be regarded as a reser- voir which under natural conditions is shallow, with a surface diffi- cult to penetrate and favoring the quick loss of water by evaporation. Under proper methods of tillage the reservoir may be greatly deep- ened and provided with a cover that will effectually prevent evapora- tion, so that its supply may be held for the use of crop plants. It is the aim of interseason tillage to accomplish this result. With crops that do not permit intertillage during the growing season the 103 1 CROPS AND CROP TILLAGE. 27 importance of interseason tillage becomes very great, while the ex- tensive use of intertilled crops lessens the need of it materially. CROPS AND CROP TILLAGE. Wheat and alfalfa are practically the only crops groAvn without irriiration in the Great Basin and, of the two, wheat is by far the more extensively grown. Other cereals, such as oats, barley, and rye, are grown in an experimental way, while such intertilled crops as corn, sorghum, potatoes, and field peas are also being tested to a limited extent. There are several varieties of wheat in common use both on the dry lands and under irrigation. In fact, there has been but little at- tempt to develop strains or varieties especially for the dry lands. With a few exceptions, the wheats grown are fall-sown varieties of bread wheat (Triticmn aestivum). They are nearly all light colored and belong to the class known commercially as '• soft wheats." The more popular varieties are known locally under the names of Loft- house, Kofoid, and Gold Coin. On the State experiment farms a number of varieties of durum wheat {Tiiticum durum) have been under experiment, together wath some of the spring wheats of the type groAvn in the upper Mississippi valley, such as Fife and Bluestem, and also some varieties of the hard, red winter wheats, such as are commonly grown in Kansas and Nebraska. These varieties are all regarded as still in the experi- mental stage, and they have not yet found their way into general use among farmers. Alfalfa is the standard forage crop of the Great Basin area, as it is of the entire western United States. Among the people of Utah it is known universally as " lucern," the name under which it was first brought into the Eastern States, and which is derived from the com- mon European name for the plant. This name was probably carried westward to Utah by the early pioneers, who never accepted the Cali- fornian name " alfalfa," which has been derived through the Spanish from an Arabic word signifying " the best fodder." Alfalfa was first grown in the Great Basin only under irrigation, but recently it has been tested rather extensively on the dry lands. Apparently there has been no very serious effort made to secure varieties especially adapted to these dry lands, but instead seed from the irrigated land is harvested and put on the market, together with any seed that may be grown on land without irrigation. The indications are that valuable drought-resistant varieties of alfalfa could be developed in a very short time if proper attention Avere given to selecting seed from individual plants or even from some whole fields that appeared to thrive well on a limited supply of 103 28 DRY B^ARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. moisture. It is true that a large proportion of the alfalfa seed now produced in this region receives very little, if any, irrigation, since a larger seed crop results when the plants are kept rather drier than is required for the best growth of forage. There needs to be a way devised by which it will be practicable to find recognition in the market for seed of alfalfa that is particularly drought resistant, as distinguished from seed of alfalfa that yields well only under liberal irrigation. If such recognition could be had, there would be an incen- tive for saving seed from the more drought-resistant plants or fields. There are practically^ no grass crops grown on the cultivated dry lands of the Great Basin except in an experimental way. The experi- ment farms referred to are carrying on extensive trials with a number of promising grasses, including species of Bromus, Agropyron, Lolimn, and Elymus. There are some indigenous species, particu- larly of Agropyron and Elymus, that are giving some promise under cultivation. There is some doubt as to whether any of these grass crops will ever occupy an important position in dry farming, since they are nearly all shallow rooted and can therefore reach but a small j^art of the available soil moisture when it is really needed; and, furthermore, they are not well adapted to growing with intertillage or surface cultivation of any kind, whereas such cultivation is decidedly essential for crop production on these western dry lands. TILLAGE FOR WHEAT. On the dry lands of the Great Basin it is a common practice to grow wheat after wheat on the same land, sometimes continuously year after year and sometimes with alternate fallow j^ears or with only an occasional fallow year, depending somewhat upon the mois- true condition of the soil. The ideal method of wheat farming and the one that appears to be the most profitable, all things considered, is the method of growing a crop every alternate year, with a year of clean summer fallow intervening. In this case the land is plowed deep, about 7 or 8 inches, very soon after harvest, or, if owing to a press of other work it is not possible to plow at once, the stubble is disked as soon as the grain is cut. The grain is usually harvested with a header, so that there is always a large amount of straw to plow under. During the following summer clean cultivation is given the land and wheat is sown again the following autumn. If, as is often the case, the wheat is overripe when harvested, a considerable quantity shells out of the heads and falls to the ground, so that if the autumn rains come early and this wheat starts to grow there is always a strong temptation to leave the land unplowed. Not infrequently this volunteer wheat does very well and yields a good 103 CROPS AND CROP TILLAGE. 29 crop. (See PL III, fig. 1.) There are also cases where this first vohmteer crop is aUowed to reseed itself, but the resulting crop rarely amounts to nuich, owing to the irregularities of the stand and to the growth of weeds that quickly establish themselves under such conditions. In the long run, it is doubtful whether it ever pays to grow three or even two crops of wheat in succession without plowing the land between crops, for such practice not only wastes valuable soil moisture, but allows llie hind^lo l)ecome very weedy. (See PI. Ill, fig. 1.) TILLAOK FOU ALFALFA. The young alfalfa plant is as tender and delicate as the well-estab- lished plant is strong and hardy, so that while it is necessary to have the land in excellent tilth and all other conditions favorable for start- ing this crop, a well-established field nuiy be harrowed and disked, and sometimes even plowed, without destroying or even injuring the plants. In fact, surface cultivation when the plants are nearly or quite dormant, as in the early spring, seems to actually improve the stand and invigorate the growth. The best results with alfalfa on the dry lands of the Great Basin are secured by early spring sowing with a drill on land that has been previously put in excellent condition of tilth. The seed is usually sown without a nurse crop, and the land should be as free from weeds as possible, for when the alfalfa plants are young they may be easily injured by weeds. During the first summer the new alfalfa field gets no attention except possibly a clipping with a mower set liigli to cut any rank weeds that may have started and to cut back the taller alfalfa plants. The plants cut down are usually left on the 2:round to form a mulch. The second summer the alfalfa field is in full bearing and may be cut once for a hay crop, and, if conditions are favorable, enough second growth will be made to give a light second crop. A\Tien seed production is the aim of alfalfa growing, a light hay crop is usually cut very early, before the plants are in bloom, and the second crop is then the larger and sets seed freely. With alfalfa seed at its present price, seed production on the dry lands is much more profitable than the hay crop unless hay is very scarce and high priced. After the second year a field may be disked and harrowed with im- punity without injuring the plants, so that it is quite possible to ma- terially aid in the conservation of soil moisture in alfalfa fields even if the ground is thickly covered with plants. On the dry lands of North Africa it has been found profitable to sow alfalfa in rows and cultivate it from time to time, and even to grow a wheat crop in alter- nate years without injuring the alfalfa, which would yield fair crops 103 30 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. of hay during the fallow ^^ears." It is reasonable to believe that sim- ilar results might follow attempts to grow alfalfa as an intertilled crop, either with or without wheat in alternate years, in the Great Basin, where conditions are in many respects similar to those in the higher lands of North Africa in the vicinity of Setif, where this method of growing alfalfa is in common practice. The quick re- sponse of alfalfa to cultivation is shown in Plate II, figure 2, which is reproduced from a photograjoh taken in the interior of a dry-land alfalfa field some weeks after the first crop of the season had been cut. The plants along the edge of the field next to the surface-tilled land had made a good second growth, while the plants in the interior of the field, where the available moisture had been exhausted by the first crop, had made practically no second growth. There seems good reason for believing that sowing alfalfa in rows far enough apart to f)ermit intertillage would be a profitable method on the dry lands, even for forage production, while for seed produc- tion it would almost certainly be more profitable. It is well known that isolated alfalfa when allowed to mature on these dry lands pro- duces relatively large quantities of seed. This is probably due, in part, to a better illumination on all sides of the plant, resulting in a larger number of flowers ; in part to the drier air surrounding these flowers during the pollinating period, which appears to have some bearing in seed production, and in part to the greater ease of access for insects of various kinds that promote pollination. It is certainly true that the partial isolation of the plants secured by row planting results in greatly increased yields of seed per j^lant, and there is strong prob- ability that the yields per acre would be larger, so that exi^eriments to determine this point would be well justified. There is a strong tendency in the Great Basin, as elsewhere in the western United States, to let alfalfa grow in a field as long as it will, which is usually much longer than it is yielding its best returns. In other words, it is not used as a rotation crop, in the ordinary sense of the word. The beneficial effect of alfalfa upon the crop that follows it is generally recognized, but a well-established alfalfa sod is hard to subdue for the following crop, while alfalfa seed is expensive, and it is not easy to get a good, even start on a new field. The temptation is very strong, therefore, to leave alfalfa fields undisturbed, even though the increased yields of succeeding crops are much desired. THIN SEEDING ESSENTIAL TO BEST RESULTS. Under ordinary conditions in a humid region or with irrigation, farmers sow about 5 pecks of wheat or 75 pounds per acre, and from 15 to 20 pounds of alfalfa seed per acre. On the dry lands of the a Bul. 72, Part I, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 103 CROPS AND CROP TILLAGE. 31 Great Basin, hoAvever, oxperieiioe has shown that much better crops of wheat result when only 3 pecks of wheat or 45 pounds per acre arc sown, while with alfalfa about 8 pounds of seed per acre gives the best results. Some farmers even sow^ 35 pounds of wheat per acre without ai)parently decreasing the yield, and careful experiments have shown that even less than 8 pounds of alfalfa seed per acre will give a good crop if evenly distributed, but uniform distribution is difficult with much less than 8 pounds of seed per acre. The bene- ficial effects of thin seeding are very striking, particularly in the drier years, when a seeding of 75 pounds of wheat results in crop failure, while a seeding of 35 pounds gives a good crop. This apparent anomaly is due to the fact that the heavier seeding results in so large and sudden a demand for soil moisture that the suppl}' Avithin reach is exhausted while the plants are still in the active growing condition and before the seed is formed, while with thin seeding the same amount of soil moisture is sufficient for the plants produced. Both wheat and alfalfa are able to throw out numerous branches from the central stem, so that when moisture conditions are favorable the num- ber of stems actually produced may be nearly as great from thin seeding as from thick seeding. THE SUSTAINED PRODUCTIVENESS OF DRY-FARMED SOILS. In a system of farming where wheat is grown continuously, that is, not in rotation with other crops, such as is the case on the dry lands of the Great Basin, the question of maintaining the soil fertility is a natural and important one. It is ordinarily assumed that the con- tinuous production of any one crop, and particularly such a crop as w^heat, must rapidly reduce the fertility of the soil. It would seem, how^ever, that with the tillage S3^stem for Avheat, previously described, by which a clean summer fallow is given every second or third year and a large amount of straw is plowed under after each crop, the reduction of fertility is by no means so rapid as it is in some other regions and under some other conditions. As a matter of fact, there are fields in some of the older settled valleys in the Great Basin that have been producing wheat every other year for a third of a century w^ithout showing any signs of depleted fertility. (See PI. Ill, fig. 2.) A^Tiile actual comparison is of course impossible, there are reasons for believing that some of these fields are capable of producing better crops now than when first plowed. If this be true, it is important to discover the causes involved and to determine whether this tillage method, if it be found a contributing cause, is capable of wider application w^ith a hope of similar results. It must be kept in mind that in the practice followed on these dry lands, where the grain is headed rather than cut with 103 32 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. the binder and where a large amount of straw is plowed under and incorporated with the soil, there is probably no reduction of the humus content ; in fact, there might even be an increase of the humus imder this practice, for the soils in their native condition bear but scanty vegetation, which probably adds organic matter to the soil very slowh^ With this large amount of wheat straw plowed under in the autumn and allowed to lie over the next winter, followed by continued surface tillage, conditions appear to be xerj favorable to the growth of any bacteria that might aid the conversion of this straw into available plant food. In fact, the conditions under which this surface mulch is maintained seem to be particularly favorable for the activities of nitrifying and other soil-enriching bacteria. It is well known that there are bacteria that under favorable conditions work on the com- plex proteids in the organic matter of the soil and change them into available plant food in the form of nitrates. In addition to these so- called nitrifj'ing organisms, there are known to be other forms of bacteria that while living chiefly on the decaying nonnitrogenous organic matter of the soil are able to utilize and fix atmospheric nitrogren in much the same wav as do .those bacteria that live and develop nodules on the roots of some leguminous plants. THE HEAVT SOILS NOT LEACHED.' The heavier soils such as have 'been found best suited to dry farm- ing in the Great Basin have such a high water-holding capacity that with the ordinary light rainfall of the region there is no cumulative downward movement of water through them. In other words, the rain water that enters these soils is held by caj)illary force against the force of gravity, and instead of moving downward to join an under- ground water table, it is returned to the air either by direct evapora- tion from the soil surface or by transpiration processes through plants. This is, of course, not true for any but the deeper and heavier soils. Soils that occur as thin layers over impervious material, or those with so coarse a texture as to have a very low water-holding capacity, can not act as effective storage reservoirs. This fact again indicates the desirability of heavy soils for dry farming. The importance of the fact that some of these dry-farmed soils are not leached by the rain water becomes apparent when it is realized that the soluble salts that result from the ordinary processes of soil weathering and from the activity of various organisms are not washed out of the soil, but remain to be used by plants. The prover- bial richness of so-called arid soils, as well as the occurrence of alkali in soils of dry regions, is due to the fact that such soils are not leached bv the rain. 103 CROPS AND CROP TILLAGE. 33 THE IMPORTANCE OF OKCiAXlC MATTER IN THE SOIL. A continued supply of organic matter in the soil appears to be abso- lutely essential to successful crop production. It is one of the most important sources of the various forms of nitrogen available to crop plants, and nitrogen in some combined and available form is of course absolutely necessary to plant growth. Undecayed organic matter is not only useless to plants, but it is also likely to have an injurious mechanical effect upon the soil, at least in a dry region, by keeping it loose and open, thus making moisture conservation difficult. The processes of decay that take place in the organic matter in the soil are varied and complicated. Some of them result in additions to the supply of soluble salts used by plants, Avhile others lead to the complete loss of the constituent substances through their reduction to gaseous forms and diffusion into the air, as in oxidation and denitrification. It therefore becomes important to consider something more in a tillage method than merely adding raw organic matter to the soil. This must be followed by providing conditions in the soil favorable to the activities of those organisms that reduce the organic matter to forms available for plant nutrition with as little Avaste or loss as possible. CONDITIONS FAVORING NITRIFICATION. The processes that result in the decomposition of organic matter in the soil and in the formation of nitrates are favored by a moderate supply of oxygen, the presence of capillary moisture, fairly high soil temperatures, and the presence of free bases to combine with the nitric acid formed. Such conditions are very well provided by the method of tillage used in growing wheat in the Great Basin, as pre- viously described. "With that tillage system a large amount of wheat straw with its partially decayed leaves is turned into the soil in the early %autumn. The winter rains penetrate the loosened soil, and the continued surface cultivation during the folio-wing summer largely prevents the loss of this moisture by evaporation. This surface cultivation also promotes the aeration of the soil, which is essential to the most rapid nitrification, while the absence of plant growth to shade the soil gives the high temperature needed. The beneficial effects on nitrification processes of the conditions produced by summer fallowing are discussed at some length by Hall <" in describing the work at Rothamsted, England, where the rainfall is sufficient to leach the soil of the field under experiment: It will be seen that the produce of Avheat after fallow is considerably higher than when it is grown continuously — 17.1 against 12.7 bushels per acre; but if o Hall, A. D. The Book of Rothamsted Experiments, pp. 62-66 ; also pp. 221- 223, 1905. 34 DRY FARMIISTG IN THE GREAT BASIN. reckoned as produce over the whole area, half in crop and half fallow, the whole acre grows much less both of grain and straw than where the crop is grown year after year on the same land. An analysis of the results from alternately fallowed plats, how- ever, shows the real benefits of fallowing. Both the seasonal rain- fall and the amount of leaching from the land were measured for a series of years, and when the years of light rainfall and consequent^ diminished leaching are grouped together and contrasted with the years of heav}^ rainfall and increased leaching, it is seen that the yields following the drier season were high as compared with the others. Thus, for the years when the rainfall for the four months, September to December, inclusive, averaged 8.88 inches and the per- colation was only 4 inches, the yield after the fallow was 2,743 pounds, as against 1,810 pounds on the continuous wheat plat, a gain of 933 pounds, or 52 per cent. For the group of years when the rainfall averaged 13.66 inches during the same four months and the percola- tion was 8.92 inches, the wheat after fallow yielded 1,757 pounds, against 1,627 on the continuous wheat plat, a gain of 130 pounds, or only 8 per cent. In other words, as a result of the decreased percola- tion more of the nitrates were left in the soil. It seems probable from these results that with conditions such as exist on the dry lands of the Great Basin, where there is practically no loss by percolation, the products of nitrification during a fallow year would be quite sufficient to overcome any tendency toward the exhaustion of these soils. THE FIXATION OF NITROGEN. The bacterial action by which the complex proteids of the organic matter in the soil are converted into nitrates or other forms of nitro- gen is but one of the several sources of the nitrate supply of soils. It is well known that bacteria living in the roots of some leguminous plants are able to combine atmospheric nitrogen into available forms, and it has been discovered more recently that practically all culti- vated soils contain bacteria which are able to combine atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to plants, drawing their energy mean- while from the carbohydrate material of the soil humus." There are many indications that the sustained productiveness of the dry-farmed soils of the Great Basin is due, in part at least, to the activities of this latter group of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The same conditions that favor the action of the nitrifying or humus- reducing organisms also favor the action of the nitrogen-fixing bac- teria, viz, a supply of carbohydrate material as furnished by disin- o Hall, A. D. Science, N. S., 22 : 453, 1905. 103 CROPS AND CROP TILLAGE. 35 tegratiiig wheat straw, a good supply of soil moisture, high soil temperatures, and the presence of alkaline bases to combine with the nitric acid produced. ORGANIC MATTER LOST BY OXIDATION. In view of the importance of organic matter in maintaining the fertility of these dry-farmed soils there is a strong incentive to avoid excessive losses by direct oxidation. In maintaining the clean sunnner fallow previously described, it is necessary to keep the upper 8 inches of the soil thoroughly stirred to form the surface mulch. This portion of the soil, being very dry and well aerated, is kept in a condition which is most favorable to "burning out" the organic matter which it contains." The loss of organic matter in this way can not very well be avoided, for an effect- ive surface mulch is necessary to prevent the loss of moisture from the lower soil. It is possible, however, to very greatly reduce the loss due to oxidation by deep plowing, which increases the depth of the surface soil in which the nitrification and nitrogen fixing can take place. These processes go on very slowly, if at all, in the soil below the furrow slice, so that deep plowing is very necessary to the best results in dry farming, not only as a factor in securing and con- serving soil moisture but also in promoting the activities of the various organisms that work in the loosened soil and help to make it productive. DBY FARMING SUPPLEMENTARY TO IRRIGATION. With a few exceptions, the irrigated sections of the Great Basin are surrounded by arable lands which are either too high to be economic- ally irrigated or too extensive to be irrigated with the available water supply. In the gi'eat majority of cases these lands receive rainfall enough for the production of some special crops even when it is insufficient to support farm homes or even for the growth of wheat and alfalfa with the best of tillage. It is very doubtful whether a settler would be safe in attempting to make a home and start a farm on even the more promising of these dry lands. At the present time almost all the farming on the dry lands is done in connection with some irrigation farming. In many cases the farmer has little more than his garden and orchard under ditch, but it is at least enough to insure him fruits and vegetables for his table, and, if need be, a little forage for his stock in the event of a severe and protracted drought. This plan of utilizing the unirrigable dry lands is much safer for the individual and is also much better for the community. Farming oStorer, F. H. Agriculture, 2: 28-29, 1902. 103 36 DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. with irrigfition usually costs more per acre than dry farming, so that wherever it is possible to grow the cheaper staple crops without irriga- tion it pays to make the attempt. The products of the irrigated land, such as vegetables, fruits, and the succulent forage crops, then find a larger local market, because they can not be produced without irri- gation, while live stock and some grain crops can often be produced much more cheaply on the dry lands. Thus the two portions of a community can supplement each other to the profit of both. One of the most important effects of the development of dry farm- ' ing adjacent to an irrigation settlement is the much-needed lesson it teaches of the value of tillage. Overirrigation with little or no tillage is the most common and serious failing of the western farmer. It is only where irrigation water is costly or can not be had at any price and when crops actually begin to fail that cultivation is seriously resorted to. As a result, it is only in those sections where irrigation is very new or where water is very scarce that the serious effects of overirrigation are not felt. Once the habit is formed, it is much easier to irrigate than to cultivate when a crop shows signs of distress. The ground is therefore filled with water, low places are swamped or made too alkaline for cro^js, and the fertility of the land is seriously impaired. With the development of dry farming, however, the beneficial effects of tillage in conserving moisture and in increasing soil fer- tility give a constant and striking object lesson. When it becomes apparent that many of the same crops can be grown with adequate cultivation and without irrigation as successfully as they can be grown with irrigation alone, a farmer hesitates before undertaking to share the burden of expensive extensions to existing irrigation works. When the extension of a cultivated area is demanded, it becomes at once a practical question whether increased cultivation or increased construction shall be the basis of such extension. AVlier- ever cultivation is resorted to in connection Avith irrigation the bene- fits are at once apparent, but without some continued object lesson or some real need, such as scarcity of irrigation water, it is seldom seriouslj^ undertaken. MAKING A HOME ON THE DRY LANDS. In any situation where dry farming is possible in connection with even a small amount of irrigation, there is much less risk involved than where there are no such opportunities. In fact, in any place where the rainfall is so light as to require extraordinary tillage methods in the production of ordinary crops there is considerable risk in establishing a home without the possibility of using irrigation for at least the farm garden. In nearly every semiarid region the varia- 103 MAKING A HOME ON THE DRY LANDS. 37 tion in rainfall from year to year is very great, so that one must expect to experience occasional or even frequent dry j^ears, when even with the best of care the ordinary garden crops Avould fail, and there might even be a shortage of forage for the stock. It is therefore highly important in selecting a farm on the dry lands to secure provision for some irrigation, at least for the garden. The larger part of the dry lands of the western United States have underground water within reach. Some of them, indeed, overlie artesian basins, so that deej) Avells supply an abundance of water. In other cases water can be. had by lifting, and with windmills or small engines it is considered quite feasible to lift Avater 200 feet or more for domestic uses and for garden irrigation. A garden of some kind is almost a necessity for a farm home on the dry lands, as elsewhere, and the means and methods of providing it should be among the first considerations of a new settler. It is sometimes possible to maintain a garden by taking advantage of the surface run-off after torrential rains, which may be collected by intercepting ditches and run into broad, shallow trenches in the garden until it settles into the ground. A view of a garden in which this method is used is shown in Plate IV, figure 2. Where ground water lies very deep the expense of reaching it is often too great to be borne by a farmer individually, especially by a new settler, and it is then necessary to attempt a solution of the problem on a community basis. There are vast areas of land in the western United States with enough rainfall for dry farming, yet without any easily available supply of ground w^ater even for domes- tic use. In some such regions it is often possible to collect rain water from buildings and store enough in cisterns for culinary purposes, but this is sometimes out of the question for a new settler in a tree- less country, where building material is scarce and high priced and where he must be content to live for the first few years in' a tent house or a small shack. In such situations the water problem must be solved by a community action. In some instances the extension of dry farming around irrigated centers is limited only by the distance w^hich farmers can afford to haul water to supply the horses or engines required for the farm work. In other cases large tracts of land that are well suited to dry farming are remaining undeveloped because of the absence of springs and the uncertainty as to the presence of an underground supply of Avater within reach and, if found, as to the proper location of wells. One of the most urgent needs for the further development of dry farming in the Great Basin is a hydrographic survey for the purpose of determining the location and extent of the underground water resources. Without the information that such a survey might fur- 103 38 DET FARMING IN THE GREAT BASIN. nish, settlers must either remain in immediate contact with an existing water supply or waste much money that they can ill afford to lose in blind attempts to locate water for themselves. SUMMARY. Dry farming in the Great Basin is limited at present almost entirely to the State of Utah, where it has been carried on to some extent since 1875 and its practice has been increasing rapidly since 1900. The work was initiated by private experiments, but the State of Utah is now supporting six experiment farms for testing varieties and working out scientifically the best rotation and tillage methods. The precipitation comes during the autumn, winter, and spring months, differing in this respect from the precipitation on the dry lands east of the Rocky Mountains, where it comes during the summer months. Farming is successfully carried on with an annual average rainfall of 15 inches or slightlv less. The annual variation in rain- fall is considerable and the year 1906 Avas unusually wet. Local topography has a marked effect on the amount of rainfall. Clean summer fallowing and alternate-year cropping, together with thorough tillage, are the basis of successful dry farming in the Great Basin. A\^ieat and alfalfa are the most important crops now grown on the dry lands of the Great Basin. Thin seeding is found essential to the best results with these crops. Under the best methods of tillage the land appears to remain highly productive even where no other crop than wheat is grown. Dry farming is now used only as a supplement to irrigation farm- ing. There have been few attempts to make homes on the dry lands. The independent extension of farming on the dry lands depends upon the development' of underground water for domestic use. 103 PLATES. 103 . 39 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. Fig. 1.— A general view of tlie Sau Juau County Arid Farm, a 40-acre farm maintained by the State of Utali for experimental purposes, located at Verdure, near the town of Monticello. This is one of six farms main- tained by the State for similar purposes. The vegetation in the foreground is chiefly black sage, while the trees are juniper. Fig. 2.— A field of wheat in shock on land adjacent to the San Juan County Arid Farm. This field was covered with black sage two years ago. Plate II. Fig. 1. — Field showing the type of summer fallow maintained in every other series on the San Juan County Arid Farm. This serves at once to kill out weeds, conserve moisture, and promote humification in the soil. Fig. 2. — The interior of an alfalfa plat on the San .Juan County Arid Farm. This alfalfa had been cut once and the plants in the interior of the plat made no second growth, while those along the margin next to the well- cultivated roadway were ready for a second cutting at the time shown in this illustration. Plate III. Fig. 1. — A poor crop of wheat on the Sevier County Arid Farm, Utah. The failure of this crop was apparently due chiefly to a lack of proper tillage during the previous season. Fig. 2.— A crop of wheat grown without irrigation in the Cache Valley, Utah. This land has been produc- ing a crop of wheat every other year for thirty-five years. (Photographed by Mr. Charles J. Brand, 1906.) Plate IV. Fig. 1. — Harvesting wheat grown without irrigation near Nephi, Utah. A header like that shown will harvest about 2.5 acres a day. (Photographed l)y Mr. Charles J. Brand. 1906.) Fig. 2.— A hillside garden in a semiarid region, showing one of the settling ditches used to catch and hold the water which runs off the hill above. 40 103 Bui. 103, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. MIUML- ^3W Fig. 1.— General View of the San Juan County Arid Farm, Utah. Fig. 2.— Field of Wheat in Shock on Land Adjacent to the San Juan County Arid Farm. Bui. 103, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. Fig. 1.— Field Showing the Type of Summer Fallow Main- tained IN Every Other Series on the San Juan County Arid Farm. Fig. 2.— The Interior of an Alfalfa Plat on the San Juan County Arid Farm. Bui. 103, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S D.pt. of Agriculture. Plate III. Fig. 1.-A Poor Crop of Wheat on the Sevier County Arid Farm, Utah. Fig. 2.— a Crop of Wheat Grown Without Irrigation in the Cache Valley, Utah. Bui. 103, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. Fig. 1 .—Harvesting Wheat Grown Without Irrigation Near Nephi, Utah. Fig. 2.— a Hillside Garden in a Semiarid Region, Showing One of the Settling Ditches Used to Catch and Hold the Water which Runs Off the Hill Above. INDEX. i'age. Africa, North, alfalfa cultivation 29 Alfalfa area, Utah, 1899 : H cultivation. North Africa 29 drought-resit^tant varieties, necessity of breeding 27 planting in rows for intertilled crop 30 seed production "9 quantity to acre, humid and seniiarid regions 30-31 tillage in dry farming 29-30 Arid lands, booms, notes 8 Utah, experiment farms l"! Artemisia iride)itat cents. 50. Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 51. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 52. Wither-Tip and other Diseases of Citrus Trees and Fruits Caused by Colleto- trichum Gloeosporioides. 1904. Price, 15 cents. [Continuod on page 3 of cover.] 104 U. S. DEPARTMENT OV AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY -BULLETIN NO. 104. B. T. GAM.OWAV, Cliirf i,f liuicau. THE USE OF FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS FERTILIZERS. BY ALLEKTON S. CUSIIMAN, Assistant Dikector, Okfick of Public Roads, and Collaborator, Bureau of Plant Industry. Issued May 27, 1907. WASHINGTON: government printing office. 190Y. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods. Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge. Investigations of Diseases of Fruits, Merton B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge. Plant Life History Investigations, Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge. Cotton and Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Archibald D. Shamel, Physiologist in Charge. Corn Breeding Investigations, Charles P. Hartley, Physiologist in charge. Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Thomas H. Kearney, Physiologist in Charge. Soil Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge. Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, Orator F. Cook, Biononiist in Charge. Drug and Poisonous Plant Incest igat ions and Tea Culture Investigations, Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge. Physical Laboratory, Lyman J. Briggs, Physicist in Charge. Crop Technology Investigations, Nathan A. Cobb, Expert in Charge. Taxonomic Investigations, Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge. Farm Management Investigations, WilUam .T. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge. Orain Investigations, Mark A. Carlcton, Cerealist in Charge. Arlington Experimental Farm, Lee C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge. Sugar Beet Investigations, Charles O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge. Western Agricultural Extension Investigations, Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge. Dry Land Agriculture Investigations, E. Channing Chilcott, Expert in Charge. Pomological Collections, Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge. Field Investigations in Pomology, William A. Taylor and G. Harold Powell, Pomologists in Charge. Experimental Gardens and Grounds, Edward M. Byrnes, Superintendent. Vegetable Testing Gardens, W. W. Tracy, sr.. Superintendent. Seed and Plant Introduction, David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. Forage Crop Investigations, Charles V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge. Seed Laboratory, Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge. Grain Standardization, John D. Shanahan, Expert in Charge. Mississippi Valley Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo., Hermann von Schrenk, Expert in Charge. Subtropical Laboratory and Garden, Miami, Fla., Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist in Charge. Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal., August Mayer, Expert in Charge. South Texas Garden, Brownsville, Tex., Edward C. Green, Pomologist in Charge. Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A. Knapp, Lake Charles, La. , Special Agent in Charge. Editor, J. E. Roclcwell. Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. 104 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U- vS. Departmext of Aoricultt're. Bureau of Plant Industry. Office of the Chief, Washhu/toH. I), r., March 20, 1907. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript contain- inf^ a review of all the work that has been done up to the present time in the investigation of the use of finely ground feldspathic rocks as fertilizers. There is a constantly growing demand for accurate information on this subject, and I therefore recommend that this manuscript be published as Bulletin No. 104 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James "Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 104 3 CONTEXTS Page. Introduction ' The availability of potash in ground rook 1^ The effect of fineness of grinding 26 Cost of ground feldspar 28 Possible harmful effects of ground feldspar 30 Extraction of potash from ground rock 30 Conclusion 31 Index 32 104 B. P. I.— 275. THE USE OF FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS . FERTILIZERS. INTRODUCTION. In view of the great demands that are being made upon the agri- cultural resources of the country, it is a matter of vital importance that consideration be given to the available supplies of elements which are necessary to sustain and maintain the quality and quantity of the crops. It is well known that there are three principal fer- tilizing materials: Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The dis- covery of electrochemical and bacteriological processes for fixing the nitrogen of the air, thereby changing it into a form in which it can be used as a plant food, seems to remove all doubt as to the abundance of the supply of this important element for all time to come. An enormous geographical area of this continent is underlain with practically inexhaustible supplies of phosphatic rock, which, with the phosphates obtainable in waste bone, slaughterhouse tank- age, fish scrap, and the basic slags from the iron industry, insure a limitless supply of phosphoric acid. With regard to potash alone there has been reason to feel anxiety. Up to the present time no deposit or source of this necessary element in any of the forms in which it has been heretofore considered avail- able as a plant food has been discovered or developed in this country.^ The mines of Stassfurt, Germany, furnish almost the entire supply of potash for fertilizer in the United States, exclusive of that which is used over and over by the processes of natural and green manuring. The potash salts, which up to this time have been exclusively used for fertilizing, consist of muriate, sulphate, nitrate, and carbonate, either in a crude or in a previously purified condition. Kainite is a trade name given to a crude product of the German mines, which contains about 13 per cent of actual potash, largely in the forms of sulphate and chlorid (muriate). The quantity and value of potash salt to be used as fertilizers imported in the fiscal years 1903, 1904, and 1905 are shown in the following table. The price of the potash unit has shown a tendency to increase each year. 7 104 8 USE OF FELDSPATHIC EOCKS AS FERTILIZERS. Table I, — Imports of potasli salts for use as fertilisers^ 1903. 1904. 1905. Kind of fertilizer. Weight. Value. Weight. Value. Weight. Value. Crude carbonate Crude muriate Pou7ids. 11,130,789 172,838,780 11,946,686 45, 166, 964 553,875,840 Dollars. 141,033 2,630,467 320, 082 782, 082 1,080,393 Pounds. 8,193,872 161, 503, 735 16, 727, 175 47, 692, 131 356, 124, 160 Dollars. 224,396 2,428,480 433, 626 833,964 839, 382 Pounds. 7,166,569 202,366,601 14, 512, 306 54, 677, 670 639, 369, 488 Dollars. 218, 816 3,241,152 Crude uitrate 386, 098 Crude sulphate Kainite 958,305 1,143,296 Total 794, 949, 058 4,954,047 590, 141, 073 4,759,838 817,992,634 5,947,667 <■ Compiled from data furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. All of the above salts of potash are readily soluble in water and therefore become quickly available as plant food when applied as fertilizers. On the other hand, the acids with which the potash is combined in these salts, especially in the cases of the sulphate and chlorid, are absorbed only in extremely minute quantities by grow- ing plants. The natural consequence of this is that as the potash is taken away year after year the acid elements collect, in some cases to the great detriment of the soil. Potash in some form is absolutely necessary to the successful growth of all crops, and is found in varying degrees in the ashes of wood and of vegetable growths of all kinds. This is illustrated in the following table, in which analyses of ashes of a number of vegetables are given. It must be remembered, however, that the amounts of this element found in the ashes of plants vary greatly under different conditions and that the sap of plants frequently absorbs much more of a given element than is actually necessary for its growth. The important point is that potash is an essential plant food of all crops, and particularly of those species which are starch builders. Table II.^ — Anahj.^e.^ of vefjetahlr a.^li. Ash. Phosphoric acid Potash (KoO). Soda (NaoO). Ash. Phosphoric acid (P.2O5). Potash (KoO). Soda (Na„0). Pea Per cent. 36 30 19 18 12 Per cent. 40 44 69 36 36 Per cent. 1 1 2 5 13 Cabbage Per cent. 16 13 16 15 Per cent. 48 39 65 49 Per cent. 4 Turnip 5 Potato ParsniT* Artichoke Tobacco 2 11 Carrot We can trace the source of potash in all its forms and whei^er found to the igneous rocks which constituted the original crust of the earth. From the averages obtained from the analyses of a large number of crystalline rocks of common occurrence found i-n this coun- 104 INTRODUCTION. 9 try, Clarke " has made the following calculations of the relative abundance of various rock- forming minerals: Per cent. Apatite (phosphate of lime) 0.6 Titanium 'minerals (oxids and silicates) 1.5 Quartz, (silica) 12.5 Feldspar (silicates of aluminum, potash, soda, and lime) 59.0 Biotite mica (silicates of aluminum, magnesium, potash, etc.) .S. 8 Hornblende and pyroxene (complex silicates) 16. S Miscellaneous 5. 8 Total ; 100. It is seen from this that probably the majority of all the original rocks contain more than 50 per cent of feldspar. There are, however, a great many different varieties of feldspar. The feldspars belong to a type of minerals known as silicates, in which aluminum and other elements, such as potash, soda, and lime, are combined with silica. Pure orthoclase feldspar is a silicate of aluminum and potash, which theoretically should contain 16.8 per cent of potash (K.O). As a mat- ter of fact it is extremely difficult to find an example of pure ortho- clase, and in most of the feldspars, which occur in large deposits, the potash is to a greater or less extent replaced by soda or lime, or both. For this reason it is impossible to tell without a chemical analysis how much potash any given feldspar will contain. The granite rocks consist of feldspar, quartz, and a little mica in varying proportions; many of the other well-known rocks, such as the slates, sandstones, gneisses, and traps, also frequently contain more or less feldspar. Some of these rocks carry little or no potash, although many of them will run as high as 5 per cent ; very few of them run higher than this. A cubic foot of granite weighs about 170 pounds; on a 5 per cent basis, 8.5 pounds of this is potash. A quarry 100 feet square and 100 feet in depth of such rock would therefore contain 8,500,000 pounds of potash (KoO) . It is at once apparent that nature offers a limitless supply of raw material which only awaits an economical process to make the potash available. In many localities there occur large dikes or deposits of more or less pure feldspars, which usually run higher in potash than the true granite rocks. These large deposits, which occur in a great many of the States, have been developed in Maine, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, and Maryland, where they have been mined exten- sively and the feldspar ground to fine powder, principally for use in potteries. As has been said, pure orthoclase feldspar should contain 16.8 per cent of potash (KoO), but none of these deposits will run on the average much more than 8 to 10 per cent. For pottery use it is essential that the spar should melt in a kiln fire to a clear white glass, a Bul. 228, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 20. 29485— No. 104—07 m 2 10 USE OF FELDSPATHIC EOCKS AS FERTILIZERS. and it must therefore be almost entirely free from mica or iron-bearing minerals. For this reason there are large quantities of materials at every feldspar quarry which, though unfit for pottery use, would be valuable if any method were known of making potash available. The question whether fine-ground feldspar can be used as a potash fertilizer has been a matter of controversy for many j^ears. There is a large and widely scattered literature on the subject, an examination of which shows that the matter has been debated with much vigor and sometimes with prejudice and intolerance on both sides. It is easy to find the published records of a number of experiments, made by trained and thoroughly competent agriculturists, which tend to show that ground feldspar is an efficient potash fertilizer. On the other hand, a number of experiments seem to indicate that the potash is onl}^ slightly available, while others would appear to show that the ground rock is entirely useless. On account of the large interests involved in the settlement of this question it is not difficult to see why vigorous differences of opinion, and even unjust prejudice, should have arisen. When, however, trained investigators reach opposite conclusions, based upon experimental evidence, we are forced to the opinion that while ground feldspar may be a useful fertilizer under certain conditions it is not so under others. It is the object of this bulletin to present and discuss as fully as possible all the evidence that can be obtained on both sides of this important question. The great demand for information on the sub- ject which has arisen and the numerous misstatements that have been printed make it desirable to present the evidence obtained up to date, even though many more years Avill be necessary for the conclusion of careful systematic investigation under crop and field conditions. The availability' of potash contained in feldspathic rock must depend upon several important considerations, which can best be expressed by a discussion of the following questions : (1) Is the potash locked up in feldspar and the feldspathic rocks, such as granite, gneiss, rhyolite, syenite, etc.. to any extent available as a fertilizer when these rocks are crushed or ground to fine powder? (2) If the first question can be answered in the affirmative, what influence does fineness of grinding have on the question, and to what degree of fineness is it necessary to grind in order to make a sufficient amount of potash available in the first season after application? (3) What would be the cost of using ground rock in place of the soluble com- pounds which up to the present time have been exclusively used, and would there be economy in so doing? (4) Could any subsequent damage result from the use of ground rock ; and if so, how would such damage compare with that which follows the continued use of soluble compounds, such as chlorids, sulphates, and carbonates? (5) If it should l)e determined that the potash in ground feldspathic rock is only partially available as a fertilizer, is there any method or process by which the ground rock could be treated so as to increase this availability? 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. 11 THE AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. The attention of the writer was first turned to the availability of potash in ground rock by a study of the decomposition which takes place when various rocks are used to form the surface of macadam roads. The binding power of rock dust depends upon the decom- position of the particles under the action of water and other sub- stances. It has always been believed heretofore that only the potash that could be leached or dissolved out of a finely ground nuiterial with water was available for plant growth. As a nuitter of fact even the most finely ground feldspar which it is possible to obtain yields extremely minute (pumtities of 2)otash to actual solution in Avater. Feldspar which contained about 10 per cent of potash and was ground to a very fine powder yielded only 0.025 per cent to solution in Avater, and only 0.03(5 per cent to the action of a dilute acid. A large number of similar observations has led to the confi- dent belief, almost universalh' held for many years, that although rocks which were disintegrated by natural processes served as the original source of potash, the action was so slow that it would be use- less to grind rocks and attempt" to use them as fertilizers. In the writer's investigations, however, evidence has been obtained which seems to show that decomposition of fine-ground feldspar goes much farther than was indicated by the simple solution tests with water and dilute acids. B}- the use of laboratory methods it has been shown that almost complete decomposition can be made to take place in comparatively short periods of time under the action of water alone. In order to accomplish this result it has been necessary to use a method by which the potash is continually removed as fast as it is set free from its combinations in the rock. Now, as the roots of plaukts are continually performing this function, it is possible that in nature the decomposition of the feldspathic particles in the soil must be continually going on as long as the product is being used, and slowing down to the stopping point when no removal is effected by plant growth. For further information on the scientific discussion of the decomposition of the feldspars the original papers should be consulted." The fact, frequentlj^ cited and familiar to almost every person, that rocky hillsides with little or no soil can support growths of tim- ber, would appear to demonstrate that rock potash is available. When it is remembered that wood ashes contain anywhere from 5 to 12 per cent of potash, it will be seen that a large tree represents, as it stands, a considerable quantity of this substance. However, trees a Bui. 92, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture ; Cir. 38 and Bui. 28, Office of Public Roads. 104 12 USE OF FELDSPATHIC EOCKS AS FEETILIZEES. take a long time to grow, and this present inquiry is mainly conjfined to availability in a single year from finely ground material. In order to put the availability of the potash in very finely ground feldspathic rocks to actual test the writer undertook some prelimi- nary experiments in the greenhouse. Tobacco was selected for the experiments because, besides being extremely dependent upon an abundant potash supply, this plant is particularly well adapted to observation and control. Artificial soils were made up of clear, close-grained white sand and finely gi'ound feldspar, running about 8 per cent potash, such as is ordinarily prepared for use in the pot- teries, and which will pass through a standard sieve of about 200 meshes to the linear inch, having apertures approximately 0.0024 inch square. Tobacco seedlings were set out in this mixture and carefully fed from day to day with dilute solutions of ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate in order to supply the necessary amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. In addition to this, a small amount of salts, containing lime, magnesia, and iron, was also added to the food solutions. Every care was taken, however, to see that no potash, except that wdiich might be supplied by the feldspar, obtained access to the plants. For the sake of comparison, plants were also grown at the same time in a rich composted loam soil, which contained an abundance of all plant foods, including potash. Although the artificial sand-feld- spar soil was hard and apparently unsuited to the groAvth of plants, the tobacco nevertheless throve well in it, and showed at no time the slightest indication of potash starvation. When the experiments were finally abandoned, the tobacco plants growing in the sand feldspar had attained a height of about 3 feet, and showed every indication of being as perfectly nourished as those growing in the rich soil. In addition to the above experiments, seedlings were also set out in a poor, unfertilized soil, with and without the addition and ad- mixture of a certain proportion of the ground feldspar. Here also the availablity of the feldspar potash was clearly indicated. These experiments, which were made in the summer of 1905, were not considered conclusive, but were sufficiently encouraging to justify further and more systematic investigation. Before proceeding it was of course necessary to look up the literature of the subject, in order to see to what extent ground feldspar had been experimented Avith by other investigators. A bulletin of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, which appeared a short time after the con- clusion of the preliminary experiments described above, contains a partial reference list of previous publications along this line." o Bui. 30, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, p. 26. 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. 13 On account of tlic «;reat interest which has Immmi aroused in this important subject and in order to pres(Mit all the facts in the most accurate manner, the \vorlv of previous experimenters will be jriven in as nuich detail as space will i>ermit. It is the intention to bring tosfethei- all the information and evidence that the literature of the subject ati'ords, whether it api)ears to be favorable to the use of ground feldspar, or the reverse. In 1841) Salm-IIorstmar" pul)lishe(l in a German scientific journal a method of prei)aring an artificial soil which, while being open, porous, and of a soft texture, should be absolutely free from all plant foods except those which were purposely added to it. The purest crystallized sugar was burned to a light form of charcoal and found to be absolutely free from any impurity capable of furnishing nourishment to i)lants. All sorts of ditferent substances were then added to this material in other pots, and plants grown in them. In this way the experiments were kept under accurate observation and miicli information was obtained of the actual foods, and their forms, which are necessary to carry on the nourishment of plants. A short time after this investigation, in l.s.")(). a chemist named Magnus'' re- peated these experiments, and also made othei's. In addition to the pots filled with sugar-charcoal, some of the pots were filled with coarsely pulverized feldsi)ar. It was found that the plants growing in the feldspar made a good growth, even if no other food contain- ing potash was added. The finer the feldspar was ground the better was the development of the plants. Magnus sununed up the results of his investigations as follows : (1) 111 the abseuce of all uiiiieral plant foods, barley attained a height of about 5 inches only before dying. (2) The addition of very small aiiionnts of mineral plant foods cuahleil the plants to reach complete develoinneiit. (.S) If too mncli plant food was ])resent. the jdants were stunted or refused to grow at all. (4) In pure feldsi)ar barley made complete development and matured grain. (."») The development of growth varied with the coarseness or fineness of the feldspar. In 1861 Reichardt,^ a distinguished agricultural chemist, advanced the opinion that granite, porphyry, and other rocks rich in orthoclase feldspar quickly give up their potash to plants when the particles are very fine. About 1881 Hensel,'^ a German writer and chemist, advocated the use of ground rock or so-called " stone meal," not only in order to sup- ply the requisite potash, but also the phosphates and other mineral « Jour, fiir Prakt. Chem., 1849. 4C,, 193. b Ibid., 1850, 50, G5. «• Ackerbau Chemie (1801). d A. J. Tafel, Bread from Stones, 1894. 104 14 USE OF FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS FERTILIZERS. plant foods, such as lime, magnesia, iron, and manganese. This author published a philosophical work entitled '' Das Leben," which treated in part of the use of rock fertilizers. Hensel thought that the use of excreta, offal, and other decaying and waste material as manure was harmful, if not to plants, at least to animals and men who sub- sisted upon them. Like many enthusiasts, Hensel appears to have been completely carried away by his ideas, which were not always justified by known facts. Hensel obtained, nevertheless, a consider- able following*^ and factories were established to prepare stone meal. The subject evoked much discussion in Germany for many years. Whether rightly or wrongly, HenseFs ideas provoked the antagonism of nearly all the leading exponents of agricultural science in Ger- many. A great many experiments were undertaken and in many cases the stone meal as prepared by the factories was shown to be very low in plant foods and nearly worthless as a fertilizer. Among the prominent agricultural chemists who waged war on HenseFs stone meal Avere Wagner,'' B()ttcher,'' Steglich,'^ Hentschel,« Pfeiffer and Hansen,^ and Morgen." , In some respects Hensel's arguments were not without weight, and he was keenly aware of the necessity for very fine grinding before the mineral constituents of rocks could be considered as practically avail- able. The following quotation '' from a translation of Hensel's work stands for itself : The practical point to settle is how far fertilizing with stone meal pays, what yields it will afford ; thus, whether it will be profitable for the farmer to use it. * * * It must here be premised that the fineness of the stamping or grinding and the most complete intermixture of the constituent parts are of the greatest importance for securing the greatest benefit of stone-meal fertilizing. A manu- factured article of this kind has recently been submitted to me which showed in a sieA-e of modern fineness three-fourths of the weight in coarse residuum. But as the solubility of the stone meal, and thus its efficiency, increases in pro- portion to its fineness, the greatest possible circumspection is required in grind- ing it. The finer the stone dust the more energetically can the dissolving moisture of the soil and the oxygen and nitrogen of the air act upon it. A grain of stone dust of moderate fineness may be reduced in a mortar of agate perhaps into twenty little particles, and then every little particle may be rendered acces- sible to the water and the air, and can, therefore, be used as plant food. Thence it follows that one single load of the very finest stone meal will do as nuich as twenty loads of a coarser product, so that by reducing to the finest dust, the aPomol. Monatshefte, No. 1 (1892) ; also Wegweiser zur Gesundheit, Septem- ber 15, 1891. fiZeit. Landw. Yereiue liessen, 1894, VA, 14. c Centbl. Agr. Chem., 1895, 24, .363. d Ibid., 1895, 24, 423. f Ibid.. 1890, 25, 1.36. f Ibid., 1890, 25, 802. a Ibid., 1898, 27, 743. h A. J. Tafel, Bread from Stones. 1894, p. 53. 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. 15 cost for freijiLit and carriage and tho nsc of horse and cart would amount to only oue-tweutk'th. TLerefore we can afford to pay unhesitatingly a hi^hei- price for the finest stone uieal that has been passed thronjih a sieve than for an article that may he not so much a line powder hut rather a kind of coarse sand. Inasmuch as this bulletin is interested mainly with the inquiry con- cerning the use of fine-ground feldspar or feldspathic rocks known to be rich in potash, no greater space need be given the (rerman stone meal discussion. Some experiments were carried out in 1887 on the use of ground feldspar as a fertilizer by Aitken, a Scotch agriculturist, and chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Aitken does not say that he was aware of the work of ^Magnus or the deductions of Hensel. The record of these experiments is given in the author's own words : " We are familiar with the fact that feldsiiar, under the slow but constant action of those forces included under the name of weathering, becomes dis- intejijrated and decomposed, and that the potash it contains is dissolvetl away from it by rain, so that streams emanatiu},' from districts where feldspathic rocks abound are found to contain potash salts, and the level straths laid down by the prolonged action of these streams yield fertile soils that are rich in potash. These soils are the product of natural agencies that have been going on for centuries, and the store of soluble potash salts they contain has been increased to an untold extent by the sl.ow solvent action of the roots of plants that have grown on them, so that the conversion of feldspathic rock into soil so rich in potash as to afford an abundant supply of that constituent for the raising of agricultural crops is the product of the work of centuries. At first sight, it might seem a foolish thing to expect that by merely grinding felds- pathic rock, and strewing the powder upon soils deficient in potash, the long natural process referred to should be so accelerated as to cause the feldspar to act as a source of potash for the immediate u.se of the growing of crops whose vigorous growth demands a relatively large amount of that substance. Nevertheless, the striking results of an experiment made at the society's ex- periment station at Pumpherston showed that such an expectation w^as not altogether unreasonable. Ground phosphates had been used as a phosphatic manure with varying success for some years, and as it seemed that the vary- ing nature of the results obtained might be due to the varying degrees of fine- ness to which phosphates were ground. I made a small preliminary experiment, in which the same phosphate was applied in different degrees of fineness, and I found that the more finely ground the phosphate the more effective was it as a manure. A similar experiment on a larger scale is described in the present volume of the Transactions, page 245, where it is seen that the etficiency of ground phosphates is in direct proportion to their fineness. It therefore seemed reasonable to suppose that feldspar, although it is a very insoluble substance, might, if it were ground to an exceedingly fine powder in certain circumstances, be found to yield to the action of the solvents in the soil and in the roots of plants so rapidly as to be available as a source of potash to some crops, even during the short period of a single season. Accordingly I obtained, through Mr. Bodker, the Swedish and Norwegian con- sul here, at whose instigation the experiment was undertaken, a supply of very « Trans. Highland and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1887, ser. 4, 19, 253. 104 16 USE OF FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS FERTILIZERS, pure feldspathic i-ock, rich in potash, of which enormous quantities are to be had in Norway. It was ground as finely as possible by Messrs. J. & J. Cunning- ham, of Leith, and thereafter sifted through a sieve of 120 wires to the linear inch, and was found to contain about 12 per cent of potash. The whole quantity of sifted feldspar was very small, less than a half hundredweight, and as it was received late in the season, the experiment was made simply to afford informa- tion which might indicate whether it was desirable to try the experiment on a larger scale the following season. There were two small experiments made — one by Mr. R. Shirra Gibb. at Boon, on a crop of peas, and one at Pumpherston on turnips. The experiments were on plots of one-fortieth acre, and the follow- ing were the manures employed and the" results obtained: Kind and quantity of fertilizers. [Sulphate of potash, 3 pounds 1. -[Sulphate of lime, 3 pounds .. [Superphosphate, 6 pounds . . (Ground feldspar, 12 pounds . 2. -^Sulphate of lime, 3 pounds. . [Superphosphate, 6 pounds . . „ (Sulphate of lime, 3 pounds.. iSuperphosphate, 6 pounds . . Peas. Dried in bulk. Grain. Pounds. 114 102 96 Pounds. 3.8 3.5 Turnips. Bulbs. Pounds. 482 496 476 Although the whole experiment is on a small scale, and the crops are below the average, there is nevertheless a clear indication that the feldspar has acted as a potash manure. In both cases where no potash was applied the crop is the smallest. At Boon the plot with no potash was unable to mature its seed, so that it could not be thrashed, while on the other two plots the amount of seed was not very different, and (juite in proportion to the total crop, viz, about one- fortieth. The smallness of the crop does not detract from the value of the experiment as a means of indicating whether or not feldspar acts as a potash manure. Had the crop been sown at the proper time it would have been much larger. In the case of the turnip crop the ground feldspar has done better than the sulphate of potash. That may be accidental, but it may be that the insoluble form in which potash is contained in feldspar is more favorable for turnip growing than the soluble sulphate. Soluble potash manures, when applied to the turnip crop, sometimes diminish rather than increase the crop, and this is especially the case where the crop is dunged in the drills ; but no dung has been put on the Pumpherston station these twelve years, and the results obtained all over the field show that potash is now required for turnip growing on that land. Upon the whole, the result of this experiment may be talcen as showing that potash feldspar when ground to an exceedingly fine powder is capable of acting as a potash manure even in a single season. In 1889 the Maine State experiment station," under Balentine, in- dependently of any previous experimenters, investigated the use of ground feldspar as a source of potash on oats. The results are given verbatim from the records of the station : In connection with the experiments with finely gi'ound phosphatic rock as a source of phosphoric acid for plants, pot experiments have been undertaken to determine to what extent plants can avail 'themselves of the potash of potash aAnn. Kept. Maine State Col. Exp. Sta., 1889, p. 143. 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. 17 feldspars. TIk' itots used for the exiK-riinciits were like those used in the phosphate experiments. They were also tilled la the same manner, havinf; first a layer of gravel at the bottom and above this 0;j pounds of quartz sand, with the last i{5 pounds of which were mixed the experimental fertilizers. Three pots. 1. 5, and 0. were supplied ea<-h with 10 •grains of feldspar carry- ing 11.1)1 per cent of potash, 10 grams of nitrate of soda, and 10 grams of acid South Carolina rock. Three other pots, 13, 17, and 20, were fertilized with 20 grams of feldsi)ar and the same amount of nitrate of soda and acid phosphate as was supplied to 1, .">. and J). In these pots were i»Ianted oats. When the oats were 2 or '.i inches high they were thinned out to IS plants per pot. The pots were watered in the same manner as were those in which the exi)eriment with phosphates was conductetl. In the table below art' shown the results of substituting muriate of potash for feldspar as a source of potash : Kind and quantity of fertilizers. 10 grams feldspar 10 grams nitrate of soda 10 grams acid Soulh Carolina rock 20 fjrams feldspar 10 grams nitrate of soda 10 grains acid South Carolina rock 3 grains muriate of potash 10 grams nitrate of soda 10 grams acid South Caroliua rock Number Yiel.l of of pot. gram, in grams. 1 18.37 5 14.37 9 19.43 13 17. 28 17 1G.78 21 16.83 16 22.88 20 18.85 24 24.37 Yield of straw, in grams. 47 43 47 47 47 52 07 72 65 The pots receiving 10 grams of feldspar produced, on the average, about 79 per cent of the average of the grain produced by those pots receiving 3 grams of uuuiati> (if potash having 50 per cent of actual potash. The amount of grain was not increased by increasing the feldspar to 20 grams, though there was a slight gain in straw. The conclusion to be drawn from the experiment is that the oats were able to draw from the feldspar potash enough for a large crop of grain. If this conclusion is verified by future work, some of our feldspars nia.v prove a cheap source of ijotash to the farmers of the State. Examination of the figures given in the above table shows that the potash from the feldspar iindonbtedly became available, but was not as efficient as that from the more soluble muriate. In 1889, the same year that the results of these experiments were made public, Xilson " in Sweden published an investigation in which fine-ground feldspar prepared for the potteries Avas tested in com- parison with potassium sulphate. Oats were used, and the experi- ments were carried out on the Swedish moor soils, which, in a dry condition, already contained 0.5 per cent of potash, although only 0.03 per cent of this was soluble in dilute acid. There w^ere 300 kilograms (660 pounds) of slag phosphate, 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of nitrogen in the form of Chile saltpeter, and 80 kilo- grams (176 pounds) of potash as sulphate or 200 to 300 kilograms « Landtbr. Akad. Haudliugar och Tidskr., 1889. 1889, 18, 608. 104 See also Centbl. Agr. Chem., 18 USE OF FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS FERTILIZERS. (440 to 660 pounds) as ground feldspar added to the hectare (2.47 acres). The results of weighings of crop yield, made on the basis of 100 plants from each trial, are given in the following table : Weight of crop of oats from, seven i}lats of 100 plants each, grown tvith various fertilizers. Kind of fertilizer. Unfertilized Phosphate and potassium sulphate Phosphate and 300 feldspar potash Phosphate and Chile saltpeter Phosphate, Chile saltpeter, and potassium sul- phate Phosphate, Chile saltpeter, and 200 feldspar potash. Phosphate, Chile saltpeter, and 300 feldspar potash . No. Grain. straw. Chaff. Total. Orams. Grams. Grams. Grams. 1 6.3 11.0 1.0 17.3 2 157. 3 220.5 16.3 394.1 3 133.8 178.7 \b.b 328. 4 175.6 242.8 21.2 439.6 6 232.5 346.2 24.8 603.6 6 171.6 24.5.2 21.3 438.0 7 rn.i 262.5 23.5 463.7 Equivalent yield of grain per hectare. Kilograms. 216 6,400 6,450 7,150 9,470 7,000 7,240 Nilson's results are most unfavorable to ground feldspar, as an inspection of the figures shows, but as a very good yield was obtained by the use of Chile saltpeter and phosphate without any additional potash, the experiments are not very conclusive. Chile saltpeter is a crude nitrate of soda which sometimes contains potash salts. It is possible that in all these experiments there was a tendency to over- feeding rather than to underfeeding. In 1890 Sestini « published the results of a very interesting inves- tigation of the decomposing action of plant roots on feldspar. A coarse feldspathic granite sand from the island of Elba was first carefully washed to remove all adherent earth or plant food, and then mixed with certain amounts of carbonate, phosphate, and sul- phate of lime. The nitrogen was supplied in the form of ammonium nitrate. Various plants and grasses were grown in this mixture under very careful test conditions. The crops matured well, and at the end of about a year it was shown that a very considerable decomposition of the feldspar had taken place. Sestini concluded that the decomposition of the feldspar went on much more rapidly under the influence of plant growth than had previously been supposed. In 1901 Headden,'' working at the Colorado experiment station, also independently, carried on some interesting experiments on the availa- bility of potash contained in ground feldspar. To quote this author's own words: We endeavored to determine whether the feldspar could furnish potash to plants. For this purpose the perfectly fresh mineral was used, pulverized as already described in imitation of the soil, i. e., the particles varied from a Landw. Vers. Stat., 1900, 54, 147. i-Bul. 65, Colorado Exp. Sta., p. 30. 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IX GROUND ROCK. 19 1 niilliniotor in diameter to an inijalpaltle powder. Tliis was mixed with pure (luartz sand. Hone ash was used to snpidy lime and pliesplioric acid. The sample used contained n<» potasli. Nitrate of lime furnished the nitrogen. Chlorine was furnished l>,v a minute »iuantit.v of calcic chloride. Distilled water was used throujrhout the experiment. The plants grew healthily in this mixture until the Hoors of the huilding were oiled and the room in which the plants wcn> growing was shut up and hecame too warm; these two things together gave them a decided setback, and later a thrips. 7'7(r//>.s striata according to Professor (lillette, attack(»d the plants and did them mucli damage. Some of the ]»lants. however, seeded. 'I'hey were harvested, though in had condition and very uneven in the degree of their de- velopment. The root system was well developed, the sand being tilled with the roots. The weight of the toi)s as harvt'sted was I'.tS.,") grams; that of the roots as washed out was 4t> grams. Tlie tops and roots were iiicinerati'd together and yielded ri.T'.)."; jxt cent of solulile and D.SO.*? per cent of insoluble ash. a total of 15..WS ]>er cent. Examination of the feldspars used showed the jtresence of 11.993 per cent of potash and I'.'.iSS per cent of soda. I'hosiiiioric and sulphuric acids were present in very small (luantities; the former e(inaled 0.041 i)cr r cent. Carban __ o. IT Sand S. 1.'. Silicic acid 1."). 7."1 Sulphuric acid 4.41 Phosphoric acid 3. 98 Carbonic acid 15. 3r> Chlorine 2. 73 Potassic oxide 15.95 Sodic oxide 4.62 udcd. was ."..2.54.". per cent. I'pi- cent. Calcic oxide 21.70 Magnesic oxide 3.90 Ferric oxide .96 Ahmiinic oxide .31 Manganic oxide . 16 Ignition 2. 61 100. 71 This ash is very anomalous in its composition as well as. in the quantity present in the plants. The plants were not evenly matured at the time of gath- ering and were in l)ad condition. The question we endeavored to investigate, however, is perfectly answered by the results, i. e.. the oat plant can use the finely divided feldspar as a source from which to obtain potash, for in this experiment, made under very adverse conditions, we found that the oat plants took from the feldspar 1.4417 grams of potash. The potash added in tlie seed has been deducted. The silicic acid appropriated by the plant indicates the decomposition of the silicate. In 1905 Prianischnikow,* a Russian investigator, published the results of a series of pot tests using feldspar and mica as sources of potash. The feldspar used was ground so that it was less than 0.25 mm. in diameter, corresponding to an 80-mesh sieve. The material was mixed with sand and the other foods added in the form of phos- phates and nitrates of lime and soda. The cultures used were tobacco, buckwdieat, flax, peas, sunflowers, and barley. The tabulated results are too voluminous for insertion here, but they appear to show that o Landw. Vers. Stat., 1905, 63, 151. 104 20 USE or FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS FERTILIZERS. the feldspar, even in large amounts, had little or no effect on the growth of the plants. The investigator concluded that mica is, if anvthinff, a better source of i^otash than feldspar, but that neither of these minerals supplies a sufficient quantity to make them worth the slightest consideration so far as plant growth is concerned. The only criticism of these experiments that might be offered is that 80-mesh feldspar powder is far too coarse to be used in pot experi- ments. This point will be taken up more fully later on. The most important researches which have ever been published tending to show that under certain conditions finely ground feldspar is worthless as a fertilizer are those of von Feilitzen." This experi- menter, like Xilson, worked on Swedish moor soils. He concluded that ground feldspar is almost worthless as a fertilizer. The results and conclusions are best shown by abstracting from a translation from von Feilitzen's publications : ^ Potash, as is well kuown. is one of the necessary constituents of plant food; consequently, if it is absent in the soil or only there in insufficient quantities, a normal development of the higher orders of plants is not possible. According to the researches of plant physiologists, it is particularly instrumental in the formation and transport of the carbohydrates (sugar, starch, etc.), for which reason potash plays such a prominent part in the manuring of potatoes, turnips, and other root crops, but it is also required for cereals and all the other culti- vated plants. Of late, comprehensive experiments have been carried out by Prof. Dr. H. Wilfarth at the experimental station at Bernburg, with the view to ascertain in what way the want of one or several of the necessary constitu- ents of plant food intluenced the development and appearance of plants. On this occasion he found that the want of potash caused a defective growth of some of the vegetative parts, the leaves of potatoes, tobacco, buckwheat, and beetroots assuming a speckled appearance.^ Certain clearly defined ijortions, especially at the borders of the leaves, grew yellowish-white and decayed, while the other parts retained their original appearance. These marks are often very much like those caused by fungi and insects, but if examined more closely it becomes evident that they can not be due to such causes. • In 1003 we made quite similar observations, when experimenting with clover and timothy grass, and, as it should be of interest, I shall describe in short the observations made by us. In 1902 a series of experiments were prepared in plots of soil of 1 square meter each (about 1 yard square), charged with rather well-decayed reed grass turf, poor in potash, in order to investigate whether the potash in a mineral fertilizer, prepared in Sweden, was of any mauurial value. As, by analysis, this fertilizer turned out to be finely ground feldspar, we were prepared for an unfavorable result at the very outset. The fineness of the ground feldspar is not given, but an analysis showed that it contained 8.15 per cent of potash. The experimental series was made up of two plats, each fertilized as shown in the fol- lowing table, and in ^Sliiy, 1902, they were sown with a clover-grass a Exp. Sta. Record, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 1904. 10. .30. 6 How Deficiency in Potash Affects Clover and Timothy. c Jour, fiir Landw., 190.3, No. 11. 104 AVAILABILITY OF PCTTASH IN GROUND ROCK, 21 mixture containing red clover, bastard clover (alsike), white clover, and timothy grass. Even in the first year the grass developed vigor- ously and produced vegetable matter, as shown in the table. An average of 1 square meter of each of the two parallel plats was taken. Fifty-four pounds of phosphoric acid were used on each plat. Plat □um- ber. Kind hikI inmiitily of fertilizer per acre. Without potash and with 357 pounds of basic slaj,'. With 89 pouiKls of potash as potash manure salt . . . With 89 pounds of potash as ground feldspar With 17S pounds of potash as ground feldspar Greenvege- T,,prp„,p 'f™o"'- <1"eTopot- du*c%71°av. ^±:>iT crage of 2 plats. age of 2 plats. These figures show that this soil responded very weW to the appli- cation of the soluble potash salts. "While it must be admitted that the ground feldspar was somewhat available, the effect appears to have been inconsiderable. It is hard to reconcile such contradictory results as these which are given at length in the preceding pages. The only thing that can be said at the present time is that careful and systematic tests are required in order to determine finally to what extent and under what conditions ground feldspar can be economically used in agriculture. The inference to be drawn would seem to be that under certain conditions finely ground feldspar is at least partially decomposed, so that its potash becomes sufficiently available to be made use of by certain crops. Under other conditions we are forced to the con- clusion that ground feldspar is of little value as a potash fertilizer. Before proceeding Avith the description of experiments carried on by the Department of Agriculture it will be necessary to define, as briefly as possible, total and available potash, as the terms are com- monly used. Potash is the name given to the oxid of the metallic element potassium. The name is derived from the fact that potash at one time was principally obtained by leaching wood ashes in large iron pots. The letter K is used by chemists as the symbol for potas- sium, the German name for which is Kalium. The oxid is written KoO, which signifies that two atomic weights of potassium unite with one atomic weight of oxygen to form potash. Potash as such is a strongly caustic substance which unites with water to form a com- pound technically known as lye. Fertilizers, both natural and arti- ficial, contain potash, invariably combined with some acid to form a compound or salt, such as sulphate, chlorid, carbonate, nitrate, phos- phate, or silicate. Although potash (K.O) does not exist free in a fertilizer, the potassium present in whatever, form is figured and reported as total potash (KoO). Owing to the belief that has 104 22 USE OF FELDSPATHIC EOCKS AS FERTILIZERS. always been held by the majority of chemists and agriculturists that the potash combined as it is in the mineral silicates becomes soluble with extreme slowness, if at all, it is customary to distinguish between available and total potash. According to the official methods in vogue in this country the available potash is determined by boiling 1.0 grams of the sample with 300 grams of water thirty minutes and analyzing the water extract. In different places different methods are used ; in some cases acid solutions are used to extract with, so that it is difficult to give an exact definition of available potash. How- ever, it mav be defined as all the potash that is present, in Avhatsoever form, which the crop can make use of in one crop season. The text- book definitions, as well as the State fertilizer laws, are in need of revision in this particular respect. This is especially true in view of the fact that the value of a mixed fertilizer is figured, as far as potash is concerned, on the available or Avater-soluble potash alone. Even the potash contained in such organic fertilizers as cotton-seed meal and tobacco stems, which undoubtedly becomes available in one season, is not estimated as being available by the present methods of analysis, and therefore in many cases great injustice is done to manu- facturers of mixed fertilizers, who should certainly be entitled to all the plant food contained in their mixtures which can be made use of by a crop in a single growing season. Tobacco is particularly dependent upon abundant supplies of pot- ash. In some of the tobacco-growing districts barnyard and stable manures are used, often enriched with an addition of commercial fer- tilizers. Since sulphates and muriates of potash are found to be harm- ful in certain ways to high grades of tobacco, the use of the strongly alkaline potassium carbonate has been largely resorted to on the tobacco crop. Potassium carbonate, which contains about 66 per cent of potash (KoO), is an expensive compound, costing $90 to $95 per ton, f. o. b. port of entry, or 6 to 7 cents per pound of unit potash. In addition to the cost of this salt, its strong alkalinity is an objec- tionable feature, and it is a grave question whether the annual addi- tion to the land of a superabundance of such an alkaline salt will not be followed by an actually harmful effect. In view of the successful results which have attended the efforts of the Bureau of Plant Industry" to improve the quality and yield of native tobacco by proper selection and breeding, it was decided to make a systematic investigation of the possible use of ground feldspar as a potash fertilizer. Preliminary to the field and crop experiments which were to follow later, greenhouse experiments were begun early in the winter of oBul. 9G, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; Yearbook Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 219. 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. 23 1905-6. Three large beds in the greenhouse, all having the same dimensions (21^% feet by 6f feet by 5 inches), Avere filled with a common unfertilized meadow soil taken from the surface after the removal of sod and grass roots. Four pounds of ground bone phos- phate were bi-oadcasted and Avell worked in. Bed No. 1 now received 2 pounds of potassium carbonate contain- ing about 67 per cent of potash (K.O). In order that the potassium carbonate might be evenly distributed, it was dissolved in 2 gallons of Avater and sprinkled evenly over the bed. After drying out, the earth was again well worked. Bed No. 2 received 17.4 pounds of finely ground potter's feldspar containing 8.3 per cent of potash (KX)). This was also broadcasted and well worked in. It will be seen that beds 1 and 2 contained nearly equivalent amounts of potash, the only diiference being that in one case the soluble carbonate was used and in the other grouuvl rock. No potash in any form was added to bed No. 3, which was used for comparison. The soil itself, however, contained about 0.5 per cent of total potash, and as the filtered Potomac Iviver water which it was necessary to use for watering throughout the entire experiment con- tains an amount of potash equal to about 2 parts per million, the tobacco on bed No. 3 did not at any time show the effect of potash starvation. All three beds were supplied with a sufficient quantity of nitrogen in the form of pure ammonium nitrate. The seed chosen for the experiments was carefully selected Cuban wrapper tobacco. In making experiments of this kind it is necessary to select seedlings as nearly as possible of equal vigor. It is not improbable that many wrong deductions have been drawn from pot or plat experiments in which the need for careful selection of seed has been overlooked. Tobacco seedlings were set out in four rows of ten plants each in the three beds. The tobacco crop is usually planted with about 8,000 plants to the acre, so that the experimental plats represented, as far as plant growth was concerned, one two-hundredth of an acre. The actual amount of potash added to plats Nos. 1 and 2 was equivalent to 280 pounds to the acre. As the original soil contained a sufficient amount of potash to mature some sort of a crop on plat No. 3, it is not jDossible to state the actual amount of potash present in the three plats. The potash in the soil was not water soluble and would not have been termed available in the present sense of the word. The tobacco grew well throughout the experiment, and for the first six weeks very little difference was noted. After this time, however, it became evident that the plants in plat No. 3 were falling behind. At the end of twelve weeks the ^jlants in plat No. 3 were plainly 104 24 USE OF FELDSPATHIC KOCKS AS FERTILIZEES. stunted and much less developed than those in the other two plats. The tobacco grown in plats Xos. 1 and 2 was evenly developed, fully matured, and of a good quality. It was carefully harvested in the usual way and the yield of green tobacco weighed. After curing, the actual yield of leaf was also recorded. The results, which are shown in the following table, appear to indicate that the feldspar potash was available to quite the same extent as that which was added as potassium carbonate : Table III. — Result!^ of (/rcoiliouxc crpcriments vith tobacco plants. No. of plat. Source of potash. Potassium carbonate Ground feldspar , . , Estimated , „^,■,a^ ^vti'Sfof'^^■^*^^^^'^^vtigMof ^eencrop. %frl^,T' curel leaf. Pounds. 1.54.0 1.55. 128.5 I'ounds. 30,800 31,000 25,700 Poinids. .5.70 6.30 5.30 Estimated weight of cured leaf per acre. Pounds. 1,140 1,260 1,060 These yields do not in any case equal those obtained in the field under the best crop conditions, but for a winter greenhouse crop raised in shallow beds they are satisfactory. On the completion of the greenhouse experiments arrangements were made to carry on field trials in Connecticut and Florida under standard crop conditions. In the tobacco-growing district of Con- necticut it is cu.stomary to use from 150 to 250 pounds of carbonate of potash to the acre of tobacco. The cooperation of several promi- nent tobacco growers was obtained, who each agreed to try an acre, substituting for the usual carbonate 1 ton of potter's spar, running 8.3 per cent of pota.sh, or 186 pounds to the ton. The broadcasting and working in of the feldspar was done under the personal supervision of representatives of the Department of Agriculture, and none of the experimental acres received any pota.sh except that contained in the ground spar. All the experimental fields did as well as any in their neighborhood and matured excellent crops. The following letters were received from the growers themselves in regard to the use of feldspar : Tariffville, Conn., February 11, 1907. Dear Sir : In reply to your letter of February 5, I would say that I used the ton of finely ground feldspar as a potash fertilizer for tobacco, and used no other form of potash on the plat in connection with the feldspar. This plat (one-half acre) was treated exactly like the rest of our tobacco lands as regards nitrogen, phosphoric acid. lime. etc. We had a fine large growth of tobacco where the feldspar was used ; fully as large as any in our fields, and much larger than in some sections of our fields. I do not consider this an absolute or hardly a fair test of the feldspar, as it was used on land that had previously grown tobacco for several years, and each 104 AVAILABILITY OF POTASH IN GROUND ROCK. 25 year we had fertilized heavily with carliouatc uf iiotash. I wiU he pleased to give you more detail if you wish. Yours resiieotfully, • .7. S. Dkwkv. Hartforu, Conn.. Fchruiuy 7, 1907. Dear Sir : In reply to your letter of Fehruary 5 regarding the finely gx'ound spar, would say that we used this material as a potash fertilizer as directed hy you last spring. This was used on eomiiaratively new land, tobacco having been grown only one season previous to this past .season. During the growing season we could not see any perceptible difference ou the same laud between this tobacco and that treated with carbonate of potash, planted side by side. We hung this toI)acco in the sjanie shed, it being cut at the same time, where we were able to identify it after it was cured. We are glad to report that the tobacco grown where the ground feldspar was used was exceptionally nice tobacco. It was so pronounced by tobacco experts who have examined it. The tobacco grown on the same ciiaracter of land beside where this was grown was exceptionally luce tobacco, but we thinlc if there was any preference it would be for that grown on the feldspar. It certainly was beautiful in eyery respect. We should be very glad to conduct an experiment ou 1 acre or less on new land that has never grown croi)s of any kind or been fertilized in any way by stable manure or other fertilizer, and follow this up for, say, three years. We havg a piece of laud we think well adapted to make the experiment. The result this past year has been so gratifying that we would be very glad to carry it a little further, if possible. Any furtlier information we can give you we will be glad to furnish. Yours truly, Olds & Whipple. SuFFiELD, Conn., Fehruary 16, 1907. Dear Sir : Yours received inquiring about the finely ground feldspar sent me. Would say that I used it on 1 acre of tobacco and got very satisfactory growth. The only difference I could detect in tobacco grown on this acre and the adjoin- ing land, where I used cotton-hull ashes for potash, was that the burn of the tobacco grown on the latter was not quite as clear as that of the tobacco grown on the feldspar. Yours respectfully, Edmund IIalladay. QuiNCY, Fla., March 7, 1907. Dear Sir : In reply to your favor. I beg to state that 1 acre of tobacco was grown here last year on ground feldspar, and as far as we were able to tell from the appearance of the tobacco in the field the growth was equally as good as where other forms of potash were used. Mr. Underbill, who used this feldspar, was not able to harvest the tobacco separately ou account of scarcity of labor in harvest season. I am planting some plat experiments this year in which I have included the ground feldspar, to be compared with other forms of potash, and hope to get some information in this way. In addition to this I shall put out at least 2 acres of feldspar as a substitute for carbonate of potash, and will report results at the end of the season. Yours very truly, W. W. Cobey. Although it is admitted that tliese experiments have not as yet proved the vahie of ground feklsj^ar for tobacco, it is quite certain that the experimental crops found all the potash they required. If 104 26 USE OF FELDSPATHIC EOCKS AS FERTILIZEKS. we assume that A'On Feilitzen and others are right and that the feld- spar is of little or no value, we must conclude that the practice of adding potassium carbonate each year to the tobacco fields is unnecessary. Many attempts have been made by the writer to devise crucial tests which would show decisively whether or not the ground feldspar is actually capable of giving up potash to growing plants. One of these experiments, which was undertaken in cooperation with Dr. L. J. Briggs, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, is interesting on account of its direct bearing on this point. A wooden trough of 1 square foot cross-sectional area and 30 feet in length was filled with a poor meadow soil, containing no aj^preciable quantity of water-soluble j)otash. About 5 pounds of fine-ground feldspar, containing 9.3 per cent of total potash, was then evenly distributed over the surface of the trough and well worked into the soil. Carbon electrodes of about 1 square foot area were inserted at the extreme ends and tobacco seedlings set out at 1-foot intervals along the trough. The carbon electrodes were connected to a 110- volt direct-current lighting circuit and a current of electricity was passed continuously in the same direction through the soil while the growth of the plants was in i:)rogress. The amount of current varied with the moisture content of the soil — between the limits of 5 and 15 milli-amperes. The plants made a flourishing growth, and at the end of several wrecks it was apparent that the best growth was being made in the neighborhood of the center of the trough, the plants at the extreme positive and nega- tive ends being more or less stunted. The soil at the beginning of the experiment was neutral to litmus paper. At the end of the experi- ment, when the plants had attained a maximum height of 2 feet, a sample taken from the- positive end of the trough reddened litmus paper, showing it to be decidedly acid. The middle section by the same test was shown to be faintly and the negative end strongly alkaline. While no sweeping deductions can be drawn from the single experiment, it is quite certain that a partial transference of the alkaline bases from the positive to the negative end of the trough had occurred. This effect could only take place with that portion of the bases which had actually passed into solution. The results of this experiment appear sufficiently interesting to warrant repetition under still more careful conditions. THE EFFECT OF FINENESS OF GRINDING. From the evidence which has been submitted in the preceding pages it may be safelf" concluded that the potash contained in ground feld- spar is at least in some part available as plant food. The question whether it can be made sufficiently available under certain conditions 104 EFFECT ,0F FINENESS OF GRINDING. 27 to be an economical substitute for concentrated and sohible potash salts remains to be determined by systematic investigation. It may have been noticed in reading the account of the foregoing experi- ments that in only a few cases was the fineness of the feldspar mate- rial described. Each investigator considered ground feldspar fine material, whether it passed an SO-mesh or a i200-uiesh sieve. A standard sieve containing 200 meshes to the linear inch has openings 0.0020 inch square. A sieve of 80 meshes to the linear inch has open- ings about 0.007 inch square. It is never the case, however, that a ma- terial which has been ground so that it Avill just pass a certain sieve will consist of particles of uniform size corresponding to the size of mesh. All ground material contains a certain proportion of very fine particles, down to those Avhich might be characterized as sub- microscopic in size. The smaller the coarser particles of a given powder which has been ground in hulk the higher will be the pro- portion of very fine material. This is a very important point, because it is doubtless true that the auiount of decomposition caused b}'^ the action of Avater on ground feldspar is directly proportional to the active surface area ^jresented by unit weights of the powder. To one who has not studied the matter, the rapidity with which surface area rises with fine grinding is very surprising. In a 200-mesh feld- spar powder, such as is supplied by the grinder for the pottery trade, the finest particles bear the same relation to the coarsest present as these latter Avould to fragments about 2 inches in diameter. As the surface area of a powder increases in inverse ratio to the diameter of thetparticles, it can be seen how quickly the availability due to active surface must increase with fineness in grain. No one would for an instant consider the possibility of fertilizing land by scattering on it feldspar fragments of an aA^erage diameter of 2 inches. Yet in grinding these fragments to an 80-mesh powder, Ave have not in- creased the active surface area as much as Ave should do by pushing on the grinding of an 80-mesh poAvder to the ultimate fineness attain- able in mechanical processes. Grinding is making surface, and it can be shown that the availability of potash in ground feldspar increases Avith the surface area. If feldspar is ground so that it will pass an 80-mesh sieve, it Avill of course contain a certain proportion of very fine particles, some of Avhich approach the limits of A'isibility under a poAverful microscope. If we carry on the grinding of the material from 80-mesh to 200-mesh, the proportion of the very small particles is enormously increased. The smallest jDarticles which we need to consider here are those Avhich can be measured by a microme- ter device connected Avith the microscope. These smallest particles have a diameter of about 0.0001 millimeter. Now, in order to make a specific example, Ave Avill consider the surface areas presented by 1 104 28 USE OF FELDSPATHIC ROCKS AS FERTILIZEES. pound of feldspar in different degrees of subdivision. First, in the form of a solid cube, then broken down to particles that could just pass an 80 and a 200 mesh sieve, respectively, and, finalh^, in the con- dition it would be if it were possible to grind all the material as fine as the finest particles which occur in an ordinary 200-mesh powder. The 1 pound of feldspar in a solid cube would have a sur- face area of 29.3 square inches; particles capable of passing an 80- mesh sieve would giA'e 8,870 square inches; particles able to pass a 200-mesh sieve would give 24,905 square inches; and if it were pos- sible to reduce the powder "to particles 0.0001 millimeter in diameter, there would result a surface area of 16,460,000 square inches. If it wei^e practically possible to collect 1 ton of feldspar all in the state of the finest particles, as shown above, the surface area pre- sented by the ton would be enormous — in fact, it would be equal to 256,000,000 square feet, 5.877 acres, or more than 9 square miles. Now, although such grinding is out of the question at the present time, an ordinary 200-mesh feldspar prepared for the pottery trade, which is valued at about $8 per ton, contains a large proportion of very fine particles. The marvelous rise in the surface area attained by fine grinding is very well exhibited in the figures given, and it is undoubtedly true that previous experimenters have not paid sufficient attention to the percentage of very fine material in the ground feld- sjjar. One opponent of the use of feldspar has written : " What we call soil is roelv of various sorts criislied or broken up by weather aud other agencies. The crushed grauite could hardly be more fertile tU^ii a good soil. Wheu we thiuk that an acre of soil 1 foot deep weighs over 3,500.000 pounds, we see what a drop in the bucket a few tons of ground rock really amounts to. As a matter of fact, discussion of the value of a few tons of fine- ground potash-bearing rock, with its millions of square feet of sur- face area, can not be so easily brushed aside. It is true that the soil contains man}' fine particles; but those Avhich, like feldspar, suffer decomposition under the action of water have presumably been already decomposed, and this new material is to replace that which has been used up or removed. Each tiny particle of feldspar pro- vides only a small increment of potash, but in a ton of fine-ground material there are many billions of particles. COST OF GROUND FELDSPAR. Nearly all of the feldspar which is at present ground to fine pow- ders is prepared, as has been stated, for the pottery trade. For this purpose it is necessary to use mills with specially adapted linings so a The Potash in Crushed Rock, German Kali Works, New York. 104 COST OF GROUND FELDSPAR. 29 that tlu> linished product shall not become coiUainiiiated from the contact with iron or steel. The production and cost of feldspar, mainly for the use of the potteries, during five consecutive years, is shown in the following table: Tamll IV. — I'rofl lief ion niid riiliic ttf feldspar, IDOl-lHOo.i [Short tons.] Year. Crude. Ground. Total. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. 1901 1902 19(K! 1904 1905 1 9,960 21,870 13,432 19,413 14,517 821, 669 56, 501 51,036 66, 714 57, 976 24,781 23,417 28,459 25,776 20,902 8198,763 194,923 205,697 199,612 168, 181 34,741 45, 287 41,891 45, 188 35, 419 8220,422 2.50, 424 266, 733 266, 326 226, 1.57 " Mineral Resources of the T'nited States, T'. S. Oeol. Survey, 1005. For fertilizer purposes the fine grinding of feldspar could be done in iron mills similar to those Avhich are used for grinding limestone in the cement industry. The only important points to consider would be the i^ercentage of total potash present and the fineness of grinding. At the present time there are few data availal)le on the cost of grind- ing feldspar to a 200-mesh powder, but with modern machinery there is little doubt that it can be done much more economically than would have been considered possible only a few years ago. Under the stimulus of the cement industry a great development has been made in recent years in the methods and art of fine grinding. The following table is of interest, as it .shows at a glance what the pota.sh in ground feldspar would cost if the percentage is compared with a cost of gi'ind- ing varying from $1 to $10 per long ton. Table V. — Price per pound of potash unit in feldspar. Potash contained in the feldspar. Cost of ground feldspar per ton (2,240 pounds). 3 per cent 4 per cent 5 jjer cent 6 per cent 7 per cent 8 per cent 9 per cent 10 per cent 11 per cent 12 per cent 13 per cent 14 per cent 15 per cent 81. 80.015 .011 .009 .007 .006 .005 .005 .004 .004 .004 .003 .003 .003 82. 83. 84. so. 030 80. 044 80.0.59 .022 .033 .044 i .018 .027 .035 1 .015 .022 .030 i .0)2 .019 .025 .011 .017 .022 : .009 .014 .019 .009 .013 .018 .008 .011 .015 .007 .011 .015 .007 .010 .014 i .006 .010 .013 .006 .009 .012 85. 80. 074 .055 .044 .037 .032 .028 .024 .022 .020 .018 .017 .016 .015 86. .053 .045 .038 . 032 .029 .027 .023 .022 .021 .019 .018 87. . 089 80. 104 . 067 . 078 .062 .0.52 .045 .039 .035 .031 .028 .026 .024 .022 .021 80. 119 .089 .071 .059 .0.51 .045 .039 .035 .030 .029 .027 .026 .024 89. 0.134 .100 .080 .067 .0.57 .050 .044 .040 .034 .033 .031 .029 .027 810. 80. 149 .111 .090 .074 .063 .056 .049 .045 .040 .037 .034 .032 .030 The i^rices are given in cents per pound, so that if, for instance, rock carrying 8 per cent of potash could be delivered for $9 per ton, the potash contained in it would be added to the land at a cost of 5 104 30 USE OF FELDSPATHIC EOCKS AS FERTILIZERS. cents per pound. At $5 per ton the cost per pound would fall to 28 mills. The figures are of course only applicable provided the potash in the ground material can be proved available as a plant food. It must be remembered that the only real measure of available potash is that which is made use of by the crop. It is not likely that all the potash added, even in the form of soluble j^otash salts, is actually used, and the amount that can be supplied by ground rock is still an unknown quantity. POSSIBLE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF GROUND FELDSPAR. The question is frequently asked whether there is possible danger to the land in experimenting with the use of ground feldspathic rock. It is Avell known that in some cases, notably Avith tobacco, injurious etfects are produced by the continued use of the soluble potash salts, particularly the sulphate and muriate. Feldspar grains of various sizes are normally present in many soils; it does not, therefore, seem possible that any harmful effect could follow the application of ground rock. As has been pointed out in an earlier portion of this paper, feldspar consists of the alkaline elements, soda, potash, and lime, combined with alumina and silica. After decomposition, hj^drated aluminum silicate, the essential base of all clavs, is left behind, the alkalis and the silica being set free in a condition in which they can be absorbed by the root action of plants. It would seem, therefore, that whatever the value of the results obtained no possible harm can follow the experimental use of ground feldspar in reasonable quantities. EXTRACTION OF POTASH FROM GROUND ROCK. The discussion of the use of ground rock as a source of potash is not complete unless it includes the extraction of potash by chemical and electrical processes. If future experiments should demonstrate that fast-growing crops are dependent on very soluble forms of potash the question of the extraction of this element from ground feldspar becomes a matter of importance. The extraction of potash from rock has not as yet been accom- plished on a commercial basis, but it has been done in the laboratory, and the method has been published in a recent bulletin." The full details of the investigation are too technical for insertion here, but if the i^rocesses described coidd be carried on at a cost low enough, the potash in ground rock could be rendered sufficiently soluble for all practical purposes. Briefly, the method consists in sliming the ground feldspar with Avater to which a small quantity of hydrofluoric o Bui. 28, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Public Roads. 104 CONCLUSION. 31 acid has been added. This slime is phiced inside a suitabk^ wooden vessel and a current of electricity is j^assed through it. The alkali set free by the action of the acid is carried away by the electric cur- rent, while the acid appears to be used over and over a on in. Finally, by combining the acid and alkaline products, a material is obtained in which the potash which has been set free is soluble and available. It is hoped that further investigation will result in some method based on these principles for making the vast quantities of potash contained in feldspathic rocks completely available. CONCLUSION. A careful reading of the foregoing pages will show that no claim has been made that ground feldspar is an efficient substitute, under all circumstances, for potash salts. The etTort has been to present all the evidence wdiich could be collected, both for and against the use of ground feldspar as a fertilizer. The question is still open, and systematic and long-continued experimentation is the onl}^ possible method of obtaining conclusive informatitm on the subject. The evi- dence so far obtained appears to indicate that under certain condi- tions and with certain crops feldspar can be made useful if it is ground sufficiently fine. On the other hand, it is highly ])r()bable that under other conditions the addition of ground feldspar to the land would be a useless waste of money. At the present stage of the investigation it would be extremely unwise for anyone to attempt to use ground rock, except on an experimental scale that would not entail great financial loss. The subject must be approached conservatively, with due regard to business economy. Sensationalism and exaggeration invariably do harm. It is extremely unlikely that ground rock will ever entirely displace the use of potash salts, for its availability must inevitably depend upon many modifying conditions, such as the nature of the soil, the amount of moisture present, the character of the other fer- tilizers used, and the varying root action of different crops. With* tobacco the results so far obtained have been encouraging, but it is possible that this plant, which is a voracious feeder, can make use of the potash in fine-ground feldspar to a greater extent than other fast- growing crops, such as potatoes and the cereals, some of which mature in practically sixty days and must therefore find their plant food in a highly available condition. 104 INDEX. Pagp Altken, experiments with groimd feldspar 15-16 Cobey, W. AV., letter relative to field experiments 25 Dewey, J. S., letter relative to field experiments 24-25 Feilitzen. von, experiments with ground feldspar 20-21 Feldspar, composition ^ experiment to determine yield of potash to plants 26 ground, no harmful effects from 30 ' potash in, cost per pound (table) 29 production and value, 1901-1005 (table) 29 substitute for potash salts, general conclusion 31 Field experiments in Connecticut and Florida 24-25 Fineness of grinding, effect 26-28 Granite, potash content ^ Greenhouse experiments i-, — ^^ yield (table) 24 Grinding, effect of fine -' 26-28 Halladay, Edmund, letter relative to field experiments. 25 Headden, experiments with ground feldspar 18-19 Hensel, experiments with ground feldspar 1.3-15 Magnus, experiments with ground feldspar 13 Maine State Experiment Station, experiments with ground feldspar 16-17 Nilson, experiments with ground feldspar 17-18 Olds & Whipple, letter relative to field experiments 25 Phosphoric acid, content in vegetable ash (table) 8 Potash as fertilizer, discussion ^ 8 availability increased by grinding feldspar 27-28 available, defined 21-22 content in vegetable ash (table) 8 defined importation of (table) 8 in ground rock, availability 11-12 method of extraction from ground rock 30-31 total, defined 21-^2 Potassium carbonate, cost Prianischnikow, experiments with ground feldspar 19-20 Rock-forming minerals, relative abundance in rocks (table) 9 Sestini, experiments with ground feldspar 18 Soda, content in vegetable ash (table) 8 Stone meal, use as fertilizer ^ 13 Surface area of rock, increase by grinding 27-28 Tobacco experiments by author with ground feldspar 12,22-24 104 32 o (Continued from page 2 of cover.J No. 53. The Date Palm. 1904. Price, 20 cents. 54. Persian Gulf Dates. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 55. The Dry- Rot of Potatoes. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 56. Nomenclature of the Apple. 1905. Price, 30 cents. 57. Methods Used for Controlling Sand Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 58. The Vitality and Germination of Seeds. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. 1904. Price, 10 cents, - CO. A Soft Rot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 61. The Avocado in Florida. 1904. Price, 5 cents. 62. Notes on Egyptian Agriculture. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 63. Investigations of Rusts. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 64. A Method of Destroying or Preventing the Growth of Algaj and ('ertain Patho- genic Bacteria in Water Supplies. 1904. Price, 5 cents. 65. Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 66. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 10. 1905. Price, 20 cents. 67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price, 15 cents. 68. North American Species of Agrostis. 1905. Price, 10 cents. 69. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. Price, 15 cents. 70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 71. Soil Inoculation for Legymes. 1905. Price, 15 cents. 72. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 73. The Devel(. ('., April 13, 1007. Sir: I have tlie honor to transmit herewith a nianuseript entitled " The Kehition of the Composition of the Leaf to the Burning Quali- ties of Tobacco." by Dr. Wifrhtnian W. Garner, Scientific Assistant in the Tobacco Breeding Investigations of this Bureau. This paper contains much information of importance to growers, manufacturers, and tobacco breeders on points which have heretofore been very imjierfectly understood. I would therefore reconnnend the publication of the manuscript as Bulletin Xo. 105 of the series of this Bureau. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. Jaimes Wilson, Secretary of Agricnltvre. 105 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 7 Effects of the various constituents of tiie ash on tiie Iturnins qualities of tobacco 14 Potassium 15 Calcium 16 Magnesium 17 Mineral and or^ranic acids 18 The character of the ash 21 The relation of the organic constituents to the burning qualities 22 Summary 24 Index 27 105 5 I?, r. I. — 285. THE RELATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE LEAF TO THE BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. INTRODUCTION. Of the many requirements for a first-class smoking tobacco, whether for pipe or cigar, good burning qualities may be said to be most im- portant. Xot only are these essential in themselves, but the character of the combustion and the conditions under which it takes place constitute one of the principal factors which control the aroma. The widest variation is found among samples of tobacco as regards the burning qualities, and it frequently happens that an entire crop of the best quality in other respects is rendered almost valueless be- cause it will not burn. The ultimate cause of this variation in burning qualities must be sought in differences in chemical com- position. Experience has shown that the chemical composition of tobacco, as reflected in its burning qualities, is greatly influenced by the character of the soil, the climate, wet and dry seasons, and the kind of fertilizers applied to the soil. Moreover, there is good reason to believe that certain strains or types of tobacco possess the power of appropriating from the soil those constituents conducive to a good burn, while other closely related types under the same conditions are lacking in this power. It is evident, therefore, that an accurate knowledge of the chemical characteristics of good and bad burning tobaccos is of fundamental importance in deciding upon the proper selection of soils and fertiliz- ers in order to get the best results. It is highly probable also that such information would prove of great assistance in tobacco breeding in establishing strains possessing specially good burning qualities. Fi- nally, it is well known that independently of the successful growing of a good tobacco crop the curing and fermentation are important factors in developing a good burn, and with a more complete knowl- edge of the chemical changes taking place in these processes further improvements in the methods now in use may be expected, for with better information as to the changes to be effected it will be much easier to develop the best methods for obtaining these results. 31112— No. 105—07 M 2 7 8 BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. As applied to tobacco, the term " burning qualities " is a compre- hensive one, including several different elements, chief of which are the fire-holding capacity, the evenness and completeness of the burn, and the character of the ash. The fire-holding capacity refers sim- ply to the length of time the tobacco will continue to burn. Fre- quently samples of tobacco which possess a satisfactory fire-holding capacity show a tendency to carbonize, or " coal," in advance of the burning area and will not burn evenly. In some cases these defects appear to be due to injudicious combinations of the three component parts of the cigar, namely, the filler, the binder, and the wrapper; in other cases the cause lies in the chemical composition of the leaf. As to the quality of the ash, the important characteristics are the color and the firmness or cohesiveness. There is an essential differ- ence between the combustion of most substances and the burning of tobacco. In the first case, the substance when ignited burns with a flame, and as soon as the flame is extinguished the combustion ceases. On the other hand, tobacco of good quality will not burn with a flame, but will continue to glow almost indefinitely. It may be said in general that those substances which show the greatest tendency to burn with a flame have the least capacity for glowing, and vice versa, and this rule is applicable to different kinds of tobacco, for in cases of very rank growth where the leaf is thick and coarse or in any tobacco markedly deficient in mineral constitu- ents there is a decided tendency to burn with a flame, whereas the capacity for glowing is lacking. The differences in the two kinds of combustion are well illustrated by the case of coal and its decom- position products when subjected to dry distillation. The volatile products, the larger portion of which goes to make up the illuminat- ing gas, are inflammable, while the residual coke, consisting essen- tially of carbon, yields no flame when burned, but under favorable conditions will continue to glow until consumed. Now, in the burn- ing cigar these two processes are both going on simultaneously and more or less independently of one another. The organic constituents of the leaf in the region immediately in advance of the burning area are undergoing the process of dry distillation, in which the volatile products for the most part escape and appear in the smoke. More- over, it is this process which gives rise to the aroma. As the fire advances, the residue from the distillation, which consists of the mineral constituents of the tobacco, together with more or less car- bon and stable organic condensation products, becomes incandescent, and the glow continues until practically all of the combustible matter is consumed, leaving as the final residue the ash. If certain of the mineral constituents of the tobacco which interfere with the com- bustion predominate, the resulting ash will be dark in color, while if 105 INTRODUCTION. 9 others which favor the roinplete coiubustion i)nMh)niinate, the ash will be white, or very nearly so. From what has been said it is perhaps not surprising that the rela- tion of the chemical comi^osition to the burning qualities of tobacco early attracted the attention of agricultural chemists, and this prob- lem has led to a large number of purely chemical investigations, as well as practical field experiments. But although more than fifty years have elapsed since the publication of the first important jKiper on the subject, by Schlosing, no one has as yet been able to oft'er a satisfactory explanation of the conduct of different kinds of tobacco as regards their burning qualities. Many theories have been put for- ward from time to time, but they have all proved to be either funda- mentally erroneous or inadequate to ex])lain all the facts. Except a few general relations which have been pretty fully established, the results obtained by difi'erent investigators have led to widely different and oftentimes contradictory conclusions. It will not be necessary to discuss or even mention here all the work which has been published on this important subject, and only those facts which seem to be best supported will be briefly reviewed. In comparing the composition of the tobacco plant with that of other agi'icultural crops, the most striking characteristic is its re- niarkalily high content of mineral matter, commonly spoken of as the ash. In some cases the ash content reaches 25 per cent of the total weight of the dry tobacco leaf, and the average is well above 15 per cent. For this reason by far the greater portion of the work of chemists on tobacco has been devoted to the study of the composition of this ash. Broadly speaking, there are two methods of attacking the problem of the relation of the composition to the burn, one of which may be called the analytical and the other the synthetical. Nearly all of the investigations on this subject fall under the head of the analytical method, which consists simply in making comparative analyses of samples of tobacco having good and poor burning qualities, and at- tempting to trace the relation between the differences in composi'tion and the good and bad burning qualities. An examination of the composition of a typical tobacco ash will show how extremely diffi- cult it is to draw^ any positive conclusions from any set of analyses which will not be subsequently contradicted by other analyses. In the first place, there are present in tobacco three inorganic acids and three bases, all of which occur in sufficient quantities to exert an important influence on the burn and all of which are subject to w^ide variations in quantity in different tobaccos. With such complex variations it is almost impossible to single out those differences which really exert determinative influences on the burn. But more impor- 105 10 BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. tant still, Avith so many acids and bases present in the leaf, there is the possibility of very considerable differences in the distribution of the latter among; the former, and in some cases these differences would certainly exert a very important influence on the burning qualities. It is quite impossible, however, to obtain any information as to the way in which the bases are distributed between the acids in different tobaccos by any available methods for the analysis of the ash. A very large number of analyses have been made of the ash of various sorts of tobacco grown in different parts of the world, but no one has been able to point out any constant relation between the varying quantities of the constituents of the ash and the differences in burning: qualities. It is to be regretted that in all these analyses no attempt has been made to distinguish between the sulphur existing in the plant as sulphate and that combined with organic compounds, although it has long been recognized that both forms are actually present, and in the case of some plants it has been found that the content of organic sulphur is much greater than that of sulphates. By the methods commonly used in the preparation of the ash for analysis, varying proportions of this organic sulphur are oxidized to sulphuric acid, while the remainder is lost ; hence such analyses are valueless as a measure of the quantity of sulphate originally contained in the sample. As opposed to the method of directl}" analyzing samples of tobacco with good and bad burning qualities, what may be called the " syn- thetical method " consists in determining the effect on the burn of adding to tobacco or some other suitable substance those compounds normally occurring in the leaf. It is difficult to get quantitative results in this way, but, on the other hand, positive results in a quali- tative way can be obtained, which in the case of any one constituent added are largely independent of the effects of the other constituents. In this way conclusions are based on direct experiment and do not depend on the differentiation of several factors oj^erating simultane- ously and perhaps in opposite directions. Schlosing " was the first investigator to study the problem by this method. He showed that the fire-holding capacity is not propor- tional to the amount of potassium nitrate, and concluded that potash in combination with organic acids is the principal factor favoring this property. If the potash is combined with sulj^huric acid and chlorin and the organic acids are in combination with lime, a poor burn results; hence a tobacco with good burning qualities contains potash in excess of that equivalent to the sulphuric and hydrochloric .ncids. Schlosing attributed the beneficial action of the potash salts " Landw. Vers. Stat., 3, 98. 105 INTRODrCTION, 11 of the organic acids to their peculiar property of swelling up to many times their original volume and thus yielding a porous mass of finely divided carbon when decomposed by heat. Nessler " made a large number of experiments on the effects of various salts on the glowing capacity of filter paper, his method being simply to impregnate strips of the jjaper with solutions of the salts of definite strength. His principal conclusions are (1) that potash, especiall}' in the form of sulphate and carbonate, acts very favorably on the fire-holding capacity, while lime and magnesia exert no marked effect except to whiten the ash; (2) that chlorids are very injurious, and (3) that potassium nitrate gives a (juick but incom- plete combustion, while calcium and magnesium nitrates act very favorably. Nessler admits that the organic potash salts favor the fire-holding capacity, but combats the theory of Schhising in ex- ])lanation of their favorable action. He points out that the ease with Avhich these salts are deconii)osed by heat leads to carbonization, or " coaling," of the tobacco in advance of the burning area, which is a very undesirable property; and, moreover, that potassium sulphate, entirely lacking the property of swelling and yielding a carbonace- ous residue when heated, also exerts a markedly beneficial influence on the fire-holding capacity. Nessler assumes that the favorable ac- tion of potash salts is due to the formation of a small amount of free potassium during the combustion, which serves as an energetic oxygen carrier; or, in other words, it is simply a catalytic action. ]Mayer '' has supplemented this work by including in his experi- ments many organic compounds, and concludes in general that these latter favor the burning with a flame, while they decrease the glowing- capacity. The inorganic salts in general, especially those of potas- sium, favor the glowing capacity. Nessler and Mayer based their conclusions on the supposition that the compounds tested would exert the same influence on tobacco as on filter paper, but this is by no means the case. The chief reason for this appears to be in the relative sensibility of filter paper and tobacco toward the salts affecting the- glowing capacity. Filter paper, which is almost pure cellulose, is extremely sensitive toward metallic salts, and when moistened with a solution of any of the potash salts con- taining even as low as .25 per cent of potash will continue to glow indefinitely, while, on the other hand, ten times this quantity may entirely destroy this property. Tobacco contains, besides cellulose, many other organic substances which are far less combustible, and hence requires much larger quantities of these salts to produce appre- ciable effects on the burning qualities. For example, small quanti- ties of potassium chlorid greatly improve the glowing capacity of a Landw. Vers. Stat, 19, 309. » Landw. Vers. Stat., 38, 126. 105 12 BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. filter paper, but when applied to tobacco in sufficient quantities to influence the burn the effect is very injurious. Conclusive results can not therefore be obtained b}^ the use of filter paper alone; nevertheless they are of value as supplementing the test applied directly to the tobacco. Dr. E. H. Jenkins ° determined the amounts of potassium carbonate in the ash of a number of different types of tobacco, which is a rough measure of the quantities of organic potash salts originally present in the unburned tobaccos. No constant relation was found to exist between the amount of carbonate and the fire-holding capacity, and Jenkins concludes that the burning qualities are largely influenced by the organic constituents of the tobacco. Van Bemmelen ^ maintains that the glowing capacity is governed by the relative quantities of alkali and of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids — expressed in chemical equivalents — in the tobacco. In good- burning samples the potash is largely in excess of the acids, while in the bad-burning samples the acids are equal to or in excess of the alkali. Apparent exceptions to this rule are explained by the as- sumption that the potash may be partly replaced by lime and mag- nesia. This theory appears to be the nearest approach to the true explanation of the cause of the good and bad burning qualities of tobacco of any yet offered, but the assumption that the favorable influence of the potash on the burn may be also exerted to any con- siderable extent by lime and magnesia under certain conditions is contrary to the evidence bearing on this point. Fesca ^ from his studies of Japanese tobacco, concludes that chlorin and sulphur have a very unfavorable influence on the burn, but phosphorus is indifferent. Earths <* agrees in general with the conclusions reached by Nessler and Mayer, and believes that the beneficial effect of potash salts are produced by the reduction of the potash compounds to potassium oxid and free potassium, which serve as energetic oxygen carriers, as was suggested by Xessler. The injurious effects of certain inor- ganic salts are due either to their nonreducibility or to their easy fusibility. The alkali phosphates are regarded as particularly inju- rious because of their easy fusibility. Summarizing the results obtained by the investigators mentioned, it is evident that the only two facts which have not been disputed are (1) that chlorin injures the fire-holding capacity and (2) that potash favors this property. The effects of sulphates and phosphates and the relative value of the different salts of potash in promoting the fire-holding capacity aAnn. Rpt. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1884, p. 96. <" Landw. Jahrb., 1888. 329. 6 Landw. Vers. Stat.. 37, 409. <* Landw. Vers. Stat., 39. 81. 105 INTRODUCTION. 13 are disputed points. The same is true also of the effects of lime and magnesia on the burning qualities. The two facts which have not been contradicted are insufficient in themselves to explain the burn- ing qualities of different samples of tobacco, for it rarely happens that tobacco contains enough chlorin to produce any injurious effects, and it frequently happens that samples very rich in potash have a poor burn, while others comparatively poor in this constituent show excellent burning qualities. It seemed quite possible that some further light might be thrown on the subject by extracting different samples of tobacco with various solvents and noting the effect on the burning qualities. It should be stated here that all samples of tobacco used in the experiments de- scribed in this paper had been thoroughly fermented, and the results are not intended to be applied to unfermented tobacco. Extraction of various samples with petroleum ether and with ordinary ethyl or sulphuric ether did not appreciably affect the burning qualities. When strong alcohol was used as the solvent the same result was obtained, except in a single case, where the fire-holding capacity was considerably improved by the extraction. More striking results are obtained when tobacco is extracted with water. The following simple experiment is very interesting and instructive: A leaf of tobacco having a good glowing capacity is divided along the midrib into two parts, one of which is extracted for forty-eight hours Avith a comparatively large volume of distilled water. After being dried the extracted portion of the leaf will be found to have entirely lost its glowing capacity. Now, if the extract be evaporated down to a very small volume and a bit of the extracted leaf saturated therewith and dried, it will once more shoAV a good fire-holding capacity. Whether this is less or greater than the orig- inal leaf possessed will depend, of course, on the concentration of the extract. This extract will further impart a good burn to filter paper and to other samples of tobacco showing poor burning qualities. This simple experiment seems to prove conclusively that the active principle or principles in imparting to the tobacco leaf its capacity for holding fire can be extracted with water. The problem, then, is to determine the composition of the extract and to discover which of its constituents contribute to the burning qualities of the tobacco. One hundred grams of tobacco having a good burn were extracted with 1 liter of distilled water ; the extract was poured off and the tobacco again extracted with the same quan- tity of water for twenty-four hours longer. The extracts thus ob- tained were combined, filtered, and evaporated to about 150 c. c. During the evaporation a considerable quantity of calcium citrate separated out, which was removed by filtration. The filtrate was 105 14 BUKNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. made up to 200 c. c. and aliquot portions were taken for analyses. The principal constituents of the extract are the chlorid, sulphate, nitrate, citrate, and malate of potassium, together with ammonium and nicotine salts and small quantities of lime and magnesia. For comparison, the ash of the extracted tobacco was also examined and it was found that practically all of the phosi^horic acid, about one- half of the magnesia, all of the oxalic acid, and tlie greater portion of the lime remain in the leaf, while the extract contains nearly all the chlorin, all the potash, malic, citric, and nitric acids, and most of the sulphuric acid. About one-half of the total ash is extracted from the leaf by this process, and this seems to contain all the con- stituents which impart to the tobacco the capacity for holding fire. An extract of a tobacco having poor burning qualities was pre- pared in the same way, and it also showed the powder to impart the capacit}^ for holding fire, but as nearly as could be measured this power was only about one-fifth of that shown by the extract from the tobacco having good burning qualities. It differed from the latter as regards composition in that it contained about five times as much sulphuric acid, twice as much magnesia, and considerably less nitric acid. The total quantity of jDotash was about the same in the two extracts, so that the extract from the tobacco with poor burning qualities contained much less potash in combination w ith the organic acids. The difference in composition of these extracts, then, obtained from tobaccos having good and bad burning qualities, indicates that the principal factor favoring the burn is the potash in excess of the amount required for combining with the mineral acids. EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS CONSTITUENTS OF THE ASH ON THE BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. The experiments previously described show conclusively that those compounds which are most important in promoting the burn of tobacco can be removed by extraction with water; but the water extract is a complex mixture of salts, and it is therefore desirable to determine the relative effects of each of these constituents. In order to do this, solutions of certain definite strength were prepared of all of the salts which are found in the extract, and the effects of all these on the burning qualities of various samples of tobacco when applied singly or in combination were noted. In testing the effects of any one base combined with the different acids the solutions were all made of such strength that the quantity of the basic element was always the same, regardless of the molecular weights of the salts used in the experiments. The salt solutions were applied to small strips of the leaf, either by placing them in a watch glass and pouring over them a quantity of the solution to be tested just sufficient to thor- 105 EFFECTS OF CONSTITUENTS OF ASH. 15 ouglily saturate them, thus avoidiu*^ any h'acliin<2: out of the sohil)le constituents of the leaf, or hy s|)rayinj>: the strips and allowinp; them to stand in a moist atnu)sphere until the solution had ditl'used throui^h the leaf. In every case a strip of the leaf adjoinin: elements which occur in tobacco in sufficient quantities to require consideration — potassium, calcium, and magnesium — while the important mineral acids are sulphuric, phos- phoric, hydrochloric, and nitric, and the chief organic acids are citric, malic, and oxalic. TJttle is known of the actual distrii)ution of the three bases among the acids and so it is necessary to test all of the pos- sible combinations. It is probable, however, that the sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids are for the most part combined with potash so far as the quantity of this base present will suffice to neu- tralize these acids and that any excess of potash Avould be in combina- tion with the organic acids. All of the oxalic acid appears to be combined with lime. If the acids and bases were allowed to interact in the presence of water, the distribution of the latter among the former would be controlled simply by the relative solubilities of the resulting salts and the strengths of the acids and bases; but during the life processes of the plant, which do not cease until some time after the tobacco has been placed in the curing shed, other forces come into play, and it hardly seems probable that there is sufficient water left in the leaf after the life activities have ceased to permit of a readjust- ment between the acids and bases according to purely chemical forces. POTASSIUM. All the salts of potassium are soluble, so that there is no difficulty in testing the salts at any desired concentration. Those most used for applying the tests to tobacco contained 1 per cent and 2 per cent, respectively, of potassium, while for tests with filter paper much weaker solutions gave the best results. In the case of the chlorid it was found that the addition of comparatively large quantities prac- tically destroyed the burning qualities of tobacco, wdiile moderate amounts caused very incomplete combustion, leaving a heavy black 105 16 BUENING QIJALITIES OF TOBACCO. residue. A^^iile clilorin is undoubtedly injurious, these experiments all indicated that it requires larger quantities to seriously affect the burning qualities than is commonly supposed. The sulphate, when added in any considerable quantity, invariably injured the burning qualities very markedh^, acting in this respect very much like the chlorid but to a lesser degree. The conclusion reached by Xessler that potassium sulphate is highly beneficial, which was based on ex- periments with filter paper, is thus shown to be erroneous. Potassium nitrate in large quantities causes tobacco to burn explosively and the combustion is incomplete; in smaller quantities it exerts a distinct- ively beneficial action, but not more so than some other potash salts. The quantit}^ of potash combined with nitric acid in tobacco is gen- eralh^ comparatively small, and other forms of potash are more im- portant in promoting the fire-holding capacity. As regards the phos- phates, only the dipotassium salt need be considered, and this appears to be practically neutral in its action, neither promoting nor hinder- ing the fire-holding capacity. Moreover, as compared with the other important acids the quantity of phosphoric acid is nearly always sma^l. The oxalate, citrate, malate, and acetate of potash all showed very beneficial effects in ever}^ case, though much larger quantities were required for some samples of tobacco than for others. Exces- sive amounts of these salts, on the other hand, injured the burning qualities, especially as regards the character of the ash. Also when applied to filter paper in small quantities the latter acquires a good fire-holding capacity, whereas large amounts again destroy this jDroperty. The acetate is considerably^ less efficient in improving the fire-holding capacity than the other three organic salts, probably on account of its greater stability. CALCIUM. Considerable difficulty is met with in getting accurate tests with the calcium salts because nearly all of them are difficultly soluble, and hence solutions can not be obtained of sufficient strength to give decided results. Only the chlorid, nitrate, and acetate are easily soluble, and of these the nitrate shows an anomalous conduct, and so the results obtained with this salt are not specially significant. In the case of the insoluble salts, emulsions were applied to the tobacco, but of course results obtained in this way are not as reliable as those se- cured by use of solutions. The chlorid of calcium is very injurious to the fire-holding capacity and decidedly more so than the potas- sium salt, so that even small quantities destroy this property. Cal- cium sulphate in moderate quantities injures the burn markedlj^ and to a greater extent than the corresi^onding potassium salt. The effect of the nitrate of calcium on the burn is somewhat surprising. If a 105 EFFECTS OF PONSTITUENTS OF ASH. 17 sample of tobacco with good huriiiiig qualities is saturated with a 10 per cent solution of the nitrate and dried, it burns with extreme rapidity, almost explosively, and gives a remarkably white ash, while with samples of tobacco with poor burning qualities scarcely any beneficial effects are jiroduced. More dilute solutions, such as were used in the case of the other salts, do not produce any appreciable effects. Moreover, it requires a concentrated solution to impart to filter paper a good fire-holding capacity. It seems likely that the effects of the concentrated solution on the tobacco with the good burning (pudities are due largely to reaction of the calcium nitrate with potash salts in the leaf. So far as could be determined no marked effects are produced by adding calcium phosphate to tobacco. The acetate of calcium is of special interest because it is readily sol- uble and thus furnishes an opportunity of comparing the relative effects of i)otassium, calcium, and magnesium on the burning quali- ties. Of a large number of samples of tobacco tested a few were im- proved by the acetate, but the greater number were scarcely ati'ected as regards the capacity for holding fire. In every case, however, the color of the ash was very materially improved. None of the remain- ing salts of calcium to be considered are easily soluble, but so far as could be determined they neither injure nor improve the fire-holding capacity to any considerable extent, but all give a decidedly wdiiter ash. MAGNESIUM. All the salts of magnesium are readily soluble except the phos- phates, and so it is much easier to get satisfactory results with them than is the case with the calcium compounds. The chlorid and sul- phate are both very decidedly injurious to the burn, and the addition of even small quantities will destroy the glowing capacity of tobacco having the very best burning qualities. The sulphate is much more injurious than the corresponding calcium salt. The nitrate acts very much like the ca'cium compound, but its action wdien applied in con- centrated solution is less marked. When applied to filter paper it shows the peculiar property of charring the paper in wave-like forms much in advance of the burning portion. The phosphate of mag- nesium appears to be more injurious to the burn than the correspond- ing calcium compound. The acetate was found to injure the burning qualities in every case, but to a lesser extent than the inorganic salts. The citrate, malate. and oxalate in a few cases did not interfere with the burn, but in the greater number harmful effects were observed. All of the salts of magnesium, like those of calcium, tend to produce a white ash. 105 18 BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. MINERAL AND ORGANIC ACIDS. In describing the results of the tests with the various salts these have been grouped under the heads of the three bases, potassium, calcium, and magnesimn, but it is also instructive to consider them arranged according to the acids with which these bases are combined. Chlorids. — All of the chlorids injure the burn, but that of potas- sium much less than the calcium and magnesium salts. Sulphates. — All of the sulphates injure the fire-holding capacity, but to very different degrees. The potash salt is decidedlj^ less harm- ful than that of calcium, whil« the magnesium compound is remark- ably injurious, being comparable with the chlorids in this respect. Nitrates. — The potash salt is very favorable to the burn, but the calcium and magnesium compounds produce little effect except when present in very large quantities. Phosphates. — Dipotassium phosphate is practically neutral in its effect, while the calcium and magnesium salts are somewhat harmful. Salts of organic acids. — The potassium salts are very favorable to the burn, the calcium salts are slightlv beneficial, and the magnesium salts are somewhat injurious. It would seem from these results that the effect on the fire-holding capacity of any element entering into the composition of the ash de- pends more on the nature of its combination than on the quantity which is present. In the case of sulphuric acid, for example, a considerable quantity combined with potash would not seriously injure the glowing capacity, while even a small amount of it in com- bination with magnesium would entirely destroy this propert}^ Again, the organic acids when combined with potash are very bene- ficial, but in combination with magnesia their favorable influence entirely disappears. It is evident that the one element on which the fire-holding capacity is entirely dependent is potassium. But it is equally essential that part of the potash be in combination with organic acids, for it is to this form chiefly that its beneficial action is due. The nitrate of potash when present in considerable amounts undoubtedl}^ contrib- utes also to this property. Schlosing, as has been said, attributed the beneficial effects of the organic potassium salts to the peculiar property which they possess of swelling up to many times the original volume when decomposed by heat, thus leaving a very porous, finely divided residue of carbon, which continues to glow until combustion is complete. This explanation, however, is inadequate, for there are other salts which promote the glowing capacity but do not yield the carbonaceous residue when heated. It will be observed that all the potash salts which favor the prop- erty of glowing, including the nitrate, yield in the combustion the 105 EFFECTS OF CONSTITUENTS OF ASH. 19 larbonaU'. It was found, in fact, that the carbonate itself is just as efficient in imparting the property of glowing to tobacco as the organic salts, and the same is true of the bicarbonate. This fact points strongly to the conclusion that the favorable action of the l)()tash salts is dependent on the ease with wdiich they yield the car- bonate. It seems possible that the carbonate or bicarbonate by alter- nately giving off and taking up carbon dioxid may serve as a means of removing this gas at the most favorable moment, the effect being somewhat the same as when nitrates render organic substances com- bustible by supplying oxygen in a highly concentrated state. It may be, however, that the potassium oxid formed from the carbonate is further reduced to the metallic state by the highly heated carbon, thus serving as an energetic oxygen carrier, as w^as suggested by Nessler. Whatever may be the peculiar properties of these potash salts which give them the power of imparting the property of glowing to tobacco, it is certain that these properties are not shared by the salts of calcimn and nuignesium except to a very limited degree. AVhile the inorganic salts of calcium are injurious to the fire- holding capacity, the compounds of this base considered collectively may be said to be inert with reference to this quality. The com- pounds of magnesium are all injurious, but the harmful effects are <>reatlv reduced when the magnesium occurs in combination wath the organic acids. The question has often been raised whether lime and magnesia may not, in part at least, replace potash without injuring the burning qualities. Many ash analyses which have been made seem to indi- cate that this is the case, while others point to the opposite view. This assumption is made by Van Bemmelen « to explain the fact that in some samples of tobacco which show a good fire-holding capacity the total quantity of potash is only very slightly in excess of that necessary to neutralize the sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. But A^'an Bemmelen's calculations are all based on the ash analyses, and it has been pointed out that the estimation of the sulphuric acid in the ash gives no indication of the quantity of sulphur actually present in the tobacco in the form of sulphates and therefore that the amount of potash in organic form may be considerably greater than calculations based on these data would indicate. In so far as lime alone is concerned the conclusion to be drawn from our experiments is that this can only replace part of the potash when the latter is present in combination with organic acids in quantities larger than are necessary to produce a good burn; for while organic salts of lime do not appear to injure the fire-holding capacity, they do not specially favor it. The amount of potash in organic form a Landw. Vers. Stat, 37, 409. 105 20 BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. necessary to impart the property of glowing to tobacco no doubt is influenced to some extent by variations in the other organic constitu- ents of the leaf, but our experiments have shown that excessive quantities of these salts tend to injure the burn by causing a too rapid combustion. It may happen, therefore, that a sample of tobacco contains more organic potash than is necessary to produce the best burn, and in such cases a portion of it could be replaced to advantage by lime. Since magnesia compounds as a whole tend to injure the burn it seems certain that the replacement of potash to any considerable extent by this element would seriously injure the burning properties. For purposes of experimentation looking to the production of tobaccos possessing superior burning qualities, either by means of fertilizers and improved methods of curing and fermentation or by breeding and selection, it is ver}^ desirable to have at hand some method of testing the results by chemical examination. This is especially true because of the complexit}'^ of conditions which influ- ence the qualities of tobacco. For example, if the attempt is made to improve the burning qualities by the use of certain potash salts, with a vieAv to increasing the amount of potash in organic form in the tobacco, the result of the experiment may be entirely obscured by extraneous factors, such as improper curing and fermentation, if the fire-holding capacity alone were determined. Of course, in this particular case chemical analysis would reveal whether the object sought had really been attained, but there are other questions of chemical composition pertaining to this problem which can only be measured with difficulty by the methods at present available. This is especially true of the manner in which the bases are distributed among the acids in tobacco and whether this distribution is essentially different in different samples. All of the important organic acids, and also nitric acid, when com- bined with potash seem to be about equally efficient in promoting the fire-holding capacity. Oxalic acid, however, is probably always combined with lime and so it is of little value in this connection. Since a portion at least of the potash combined with organic acids, as well as that present in the form of nitrate, will appear in the ash of the tobacco as carbonate, the determination of this latter quantity gives a rough measure of the amount of these salts originally present and is therefore by far the most important single criterion for fudg- ing the burning qualities in a chemical way. We have tested a number of samples of tobacco grown in Con- necticut in this way, in each case using one half of the leaf for test- ing the alkalinity of the ash and the second half for finding the fire- 105 CHARACTER OF THE ASH. 21 holding capacity. To obtain some indication as to whether lime and magnesia can partly replace the organic jjotash, the alkalinity of the ash due to these bases was also determined, but the evidence on this point was all of a negative character, for the alkalinity due to lime and magnesia collectively did not show any apparent relation to the glowing capacity. In the case of the alkalinity due to potash — that is, the quantity of the potassium carbonate — however, there is unmis- takable evidence of a close relation between these values and the capacity for holding fire, and if the method were really a true meas- ure of the organic potash it is believed that there would be very few, if any, exceptions to this ride. The samples used for this test were selected with special reference to the tobacco-breeding experiments which are being carried on by the Bureau of Plant Industry, and were taken from crops produced from the seed of individual selections of four different types of tobacco originally found growing in the same field. Both the light and the dark wrapjjers were examined in each case, and in every instance the former as compared with the latter showed a much greater fire- holding capacity and a much higher percentage of potassium car- bonate in the ash. Also as regards the same grade of leaf of the diiferent strains of each tj'pe, as well as of the different types taken collectively, the potash alkalinity was found to be directly propor- tional in nearly every case to the capacity for holding fire. This was especially true of the different strains of any one type. These tobaccos were all groAvn under as uniform conditions as could be ob- tained with reference to soil and fertilizers, and the results make it very probable that certain types or strains of tobacco possess the power of appropriating potash in forms favorable to the burning qualities to a greater degi'ee than others growing under the same con- ditions, though fiirther data are required to fully prove this point. The question is certainly a very important one from the standpoint of practical tobacco breeding and is worthy of very careful study. THE CHARACTER OF THE ASH. A tobacco "with satisfactory burning qualities besides having the necessary capacity for holding fire must also yield a good ash. Although the organic potassium salts greatly favor the fire-holding capacity, they tend to produce a mottled, dark-colored ash. This is no doubt due to the easy fusibility of the alkali carbonate, which in melting incloses very small particles of unburned carbon and thus prevents complete combustion. Moreover, these salts when present in considerable quantity show a tendency to cause the tobacco to " coal " or carbonize in advance of the glowing portion, because they decompose so readily when heated. 105 22 BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO. The fact that the calcium and magnesium salts produce a white ash has already been mentioned, and at least one of these is essential to this property. On the other hand, tobacco containing excessive amounts of lime gives an ash which, although it is very light in color, lacks cohesion, or, in the language of the trade, it " flakes." This is a very objectionable property and must always be taken into account in judging the burning qualities of tobacco. The potash salts, more especially the organic compounds, jdeld an ash which is firm and compact but dark in color. From these facts, then, it is clear that potash and lime combined in the proper proportion are essential to a firm, light-colored ash. There is no apparent reason to suppose that magnesia is of any special significance in this connection further than the fact that it acts like lime. THE RELATION OF THE ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS TO THE BURNING QUALITIES. The organic compounds constitute the material which is consumed in the combustion of the tobacco, and in some way the mineral con- stituents, more particularly the potash salts, impart to this material the proj^erty of burning without flame. If the mineral constituents are extracted from a leaf of tobacco, it will then only burn with a flame, the gloAving capacity having been entirely lost. However, some of the organic compounds show a greater tendency to burn with a flame than do others, and hence act less favorably on the glowing capacity, for, as has been stated, these two qualities usually stand in inverse ratio to one another. The principal compounds or classes of compounds which need to be considered in this connection are cel- lulose, the organic acids, pectin, the so-called tobacco tars, plant wax, the sugars, nicotine, and other organic nitrogenous compounds. For the purpose of studying the composition of the leaf with refer- ence to its burning qualities we ma}^ consider cellulose, which con- stitutes from 10 to 15 per cent of the total weight, as the fundamental or basic material, which receives its capacity for glowing from cer- tain mineral salts. Pure cellulose in the form of filter paper is exceedingly sensitive to the catalytic action of these mineral salts, very small quantities of them being sufficient to cause the paper to burn without flame indefinitely, but Avhen the other organic constitu- ents of tobacco are present this sensibility is greatly aifected and much larger quantities of the catalytic agent are necessary to pro- duce a good fire-holding capacity. Cellulose, then, must be consid- ered as a very favorable factor in promoting this property of hold- ing fire. There are a large number of organic acids normally occurring in tobacco, but of some of these practically nothing is known. Atten- 105 RELATION OF ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 23 tion has been called to the fact that citric, malic, oxalic, and acetic acids in combination with potash exert a very favorable influence on the burning qualities. It was found by direct experiment that these acids in the free state injure these qualities, but as they probabl}'^ never occur free in fermented tobacco this fact is of little consequence. Citric and malic acids are undoubtedly of fundamental importance in producing good burning qualities, but since oxalic acid occurs in combination with lime and not with potash in tobacco it is of little value in this respect. Pectin and the pectoses are present in considerable (juantities in cured tobacco leaves, but, accord- ing to Schlosing, these are all converted into pectic acid during the process of fermentation. xV sami)le of pectic acid jDrepared from fermented tobacco was found to produce no injury to the fire-holding capacity; in fact, when combined with potash it acted favorably on this property. According to Kissling, the tobacco tars, consisting of a mixture of a number of chemical individuals, exert an important influence on the quality of the i)roduct. Some of these are of an acid charac- ter, while others are indifferent, substances. When tobacco is ex- tracted with large volumes of water, as previously described, con- siderable quantities of these tariy acids combined with nicotine and other bases pass into solution, and on evaporation of the extract the salts are decomposed, the nicotine volatilizing and the tarry acids being precijDitated. These acids in the free state were found to be decidedly injurious to the burning qualities, but they occur in tobacco in comparatively small quantities. A number of samples of tobacco of very poor burning quality were extracted with alcohol to determine if this solvent would remove any constituents deleterious to the burn, but with the exception of a single case this treatment did not improve the tobacco in this respect. The constituents removed by extraction with alcohol are nicotine combined with acids, tannic acid, glucosides, sugars, and the tars and tarry acids; hence it appears that none of these compounds ^re of special importance with reference to the burn. Direct experiments showed that glucose does not materially influence the burning quali- ties. Nicotine is the characteristic alkaloid of tobacco and is of great importance with reference to its physiological action, but its salts were found to have no effect on the burn. In addition to nicotine the important nitrogenous constituents are the amido compounds and the albuminoids. It is generally believed that the amido compounds exert a favorable and the albuminoids an unfavorable influence on the desirable qualities of tobacco, including the burn, although there is little experimental proof of this theory. The quantity of plant wax occurring in tobacco is too small to affect the burning qualities. 105 24 BURNING QUALITIES OP TOBACCO. SUMMARY. The principal facts brought out by the experiments which have been described on the relation of the chemical composition to the burning qualities of tobacco may be briefly summarized in the follow- ing general statements : ' (1) The fire-holding capacity is dependent primarily on the con- tent of potash combined with organic acids. (2) Lime in general does not greatly affect the fire-holding capac- ity, but is an essential factor in the production of a good ash. (3) Large amounts of magnesia tend to injure the capacity for holding fire. (4) Chlorin injures the burning qualities, but it seldom happens that tobacco contains enough of this element to do any serious harm. (5) Sulphates in general injure the burning qualities, but the effects are not so marked when all the sulphuric acid is combined with potash. (6) So far as is known none of the organic constituents of tobacco, with the possible exception of the so-called tarry acids and the albu- minoids, exert a very important influence on the burning qualities. From these conclusions it appears that the principal objects to be attained in efforts to improve the burning qualities of tobacco by breeding and by improved methods of production, especially in the use of the proper fertilizers, are (1) a relatively high content of pot- ash combined with citric and malic acids, with a minimum amount of inorganic salts, especially chlorids and sulphates; (2) a moderate content of lime; (3) a comparatively small percentage of magnesia, and (4) a low content of organic nitrogenous compounds, more espe- cially the albuminoids or proteids. Of these problems the first mentioned is altogether the most important from a practical stand- point and also the most difficult to solve. It has long been known that the muriate can not be used as a source of potash in the pro- duction of tobacco which is intended for smoking purposes, because of the injurious effects of the chlorin. The other available sources of potash at the present time are the sulphate, the carbonate, and the silicate. Schlosing," in his experiments with the use of the sulphate as a fertilizer for tobacco, found that the potash is assimilated, while the content of sulphuric acid is not increased. Jenkins,^ on the other hand, in experiments conducted at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and extending over a period of several years, has shown that the composition of tobacco ash is profoundly modi- fied by the use of different forms of potash and that applications of o Landw. A' ers. Stat., 3, 98. » Ann. Rpt. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1896. 105 SUMMARY. 25 the sulphate greatly increase the quantity of sulphuric acid in the ash. The carbonate would seem to be an ideal form in which to supply the potash for combinino; Avith the organic acids in the plant, and its use has generally been found to improve the burning quali- ties. But, aside from the high cost of this material, there are other serious objections to its use, for it has a very strong alkaline reaction, and it seems i)robable that when used in large quantities it will eventually injure seriously the productivene^ss of the soil. The sili- cate is free from these objectionable properties, and if the potash can be made available there is every reason to believe that this will ])rove to be a very valuable source of potash for tobacco. The sum of the lime and the magnCvsia in tobacco does not, as a rule, vary widely ; or, in other words, the greater the amount of lime the less will be the amount of magnesia, and vice versa. The appli- cation of fertilizers containing magnesia increases the percentage of this element in the tobacco, but when used in the form of the car- bonate the injury to the burning qualities w'ould be reduced to a minimum. It is believed, however, that the use of fertilizer salts containing magnesia in the form of sulphate is inadvisable. The percentage of organic nitrogenous compounds, including nico- tine, is generally proportional to the luxuriance and vigor of growth ; hence tobacco of very rank growth contains excessive quantities of these constituents. Again, these substances are most abundant when the plant is, as a whole, growing most rapidly, and also in the most rapidly growing parts of the plant. Conditions favorable to rank growth are brought about by the use of excessive quantities of nitroge- nous fertilizers, especially when the nitrogen is in readily available forms. The chief danger from this source, however, lies in the appli- cation of quickly available forms of nitrogen during the later stages of grow^th, thus preventing or delaying the normal ripening of the leaf. Since the percentage of albuminoids decreases rapidly through- out the ripening process after the leaf has reached its full growth, this is an important reason wdiy tobacco should not be harvested until the leaf is well ripened. 105 INDEX. Page. Acids. t)rgauic, relation to biu'ning qualities --_ 22 salts, effects on Imniiiitx (jualities 18 Alkalinity of ash. relation to imi-niiii; (|iialities 20 Ash constituents, effects on burning,' (iiialities 14 relation of alkalinity to hnrnin;,' (|ualities 20 Kreedinj;, improvement of hurniiiK qualities by selection 21 lUn-iiiuf; (|ualities, meaniDi,' of term 8 Calcium salts, i-ftects on burning qualities 16 Cellulose, relation to burninj; (lualities 22 Clilorids. effects on burning (lualities 18 Combustion process in tobacco and burning with a flame, differences 8 Comi)ositi(»n of leaf, relation to burning qualities, previous investigations. 10 Extraction of tobacco with various solvents, effects on burning (lualities.. l;i, 23 Extracts of tobacco, water. c()uq)osition 1-4 Fertilizers containing magnesia, use 25 Flame, burning with, and combustion process in tobacco, differences 8 Improvement of burning (|ualities, objects to be attained 24 Leaf, composition, relation to biu-ning tiualities. previcnis investigations— 10 Lime, effect on character of ash 22 Magnesium salts, effects on burning qualities 17 Nitrates, effects on burning tjualities ^ 18 Nitrogenous constituents, conditions favoring excessive production 25 relation to burning qualities — _ 23 Organic acids, relation to burning (lualities 22 salts, effects on burning qualities , 18 constituents, relation to burning qualities 22 Phosphates, effects on burning qualities 18 Potash, effect on character of ash 21 fertilizers, effects of different forms on composition of ash 24 for tobacco, available sources 24 partial replacement by lime and magnesia _ 19 Potassium salts, effect on burning qualities 15, 19 Sulphates, effects on burning qualities 18 Sulphur in tobacco, two forms 10 Tars, tobacco, relation to burning qualities 23 Water extracts of tobacco, composition . 14 105 27 o [Continued from page 2 of cover.] No. r>2. Wlther-Tip Jind Other nisoascs of Citrus Trees and Fruits Caused by Colleto- trichum Gloeosporioides. 1!)04. Price, 15 cents. 5:?. Tlie Date Palm. 1!)04. Price. 20 cents. 54. Persian Culf Dates. 1!)0H. Price, 10 cents. .").'".. Tlie Drv-Kot of Potatoes. 1!)04. Price. 10 cents. 56. Nomenclature of the Apple. 1005. Price. ."iO cents. 57. Methods Used for ControllinK Sand Dunes. 1904. Price. 10 cents. 58. The Vitality and Cermination of Seeds. 1904. Price. 10 cents. 59. Pasture. Meadow, and I'orasre Crops in Nebraska. P.)04. Price, 10 cents. t!0. A Soft IJot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price. 10 cents. 61. The Avocado in Florida. 1904. Price, 5 cents. 62. Notes on EK.vptian Agriculture. 1904. Price, 10 cents. G.'i. Investigations of Uusts. 1904. Price. 10 cents. 64. A Method of Destroying: or Preventing the Growth of Algic and Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Water S\ipplies. 1904. Price. 5 cents. 65. Ueclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. 1904. I'rlce, 10 cents. 66. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 10. 1905. Price. 20 cents. 67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price. 15 cents. 68. North American Species of Agrostls. 1905. Price, 10 cents. 69. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. Price. 15 cents. 70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents. 71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. l'.)05. I'rice, 15 cents. 72. Miscellaneous I'apers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 73. The Development of Single-(Jerm Beet Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents. 74. Prickly I'ear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 75. Range Management in the State of Washington. 1905. Price. 5 cents. 76. Copper as an Alglcide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 77. The Avocado, a Salad Fruit from the Tropics. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 78. Improving the Quality of Wheat. 1905. Price. 10 cents. 79. The Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resistance to Toxic Salts. 1905. I'rice, 5 cents. 80. Agricultural lOxplorations in Algeria. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 81. Evolution of Cellular Structures. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 82. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 1905. Price, 10 cents. 83. The Vitality of Buried Seeds. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 84. The Seeds of tlie Bluegrasses. 1905. Price. 5 cents. 85. The Principles of Mushroom Growing. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 86. Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara Desert. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 87. Disease Resistance of Potatoes. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 88. Weevil-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant. 1906. Price. 10 cents. 89. Wild Medicinal IMants of the T'nited States. 1906. 90. Miscellaneous Papers. 1906. Price, 5 cents. 91. Varieties of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906. 92. Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis. 1906. 93. The Control of Apple Bitter-Rot. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 94. Farm Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 95. A New Type of Red Clover. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 97. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 11. 1907. Price, 30 cents. 98. Soy Bean Varieties. [In press.] 99. A Quick Method for the Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1907. Price. 5 cents. 100. Miscellaneous Papers : I. Cranberry Spraying Experiments in 1905. II. The Wrap- ping of Apple Grafts and Its Relation to the Crown-Gall Disease. III. Garlicky Wheat. IV. Methods of Testing the Burning Quality of Cigar Tobacco. V. The Drug Known as Pinkroot. VI. Orchard Grass. VII. The Effect of Copper upon Water Bacteria. VIII. Conditions Affecting Legume Inoculation. 1907. Price, 25 cents. 101. [In preparation.] 102. Part I. Summary of Recent Investigations of the Value of Cacti as Stock Food. 1907. Price, 5 cents. Part II. A Successful Dairy Farm. 1907. Price, 5 cents. Part III. Planning a Cropping System. 1907. Price, 5 cents. Part IV. The Application of Vegative Propagation to Leguminous Forage Plants. 1907.- Price, 5 cents. Part V. The Control of Texas Root-Rot of Cotton. 1907. I'rice, 5 cents. Part VI. The History of the Cowpea and Its Introduction into •America. [In press.] 103. Dry Farming in the Great Basin. [In press.] 104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. [In press.] 105 1906. P Price. 5 rice. 1 cents. Price, Pi- ice, 5 cents. 25 cents. ^ U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY -BULLETIN NO. 106. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chi^ of Bureau. SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD FROM DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1006. INVE:ST0KY No. 12; No8. 16797 to 19057. Issued December 20, 1907. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PKINTING OFFICE. 1907. BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, are issued in a'single series of bulletins, a list of which follows. Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series are not for gen- eral distribution. The Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, is authorized by law to sell them at cost, and to him all applica- tions for these bulletins should be made, accompamed by a postal money order for the required amount or by cash. No. 1. Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 4. Range Im}>rovement in Arizona. 1901. Price, 10 cents. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory So. 9. 1902. [Exhausted.] 6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. [Exhausted.] 9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 10. Records of Seed Distriljution, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 11. Johnson Gra.ss. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 14. Decay of timber and :Method,s of Preventing It. 1902. [Exhausted.] 15. Forage Conditions on the Bonier of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 16. Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campestris, etc. 1902. [Exhausted.] 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. [Exhausted.] 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. [Exhausted.] 20. iSIanufacture of Semolina anited.] 24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 25. Miscellaneous Papers. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 26. Spanish Almonds. 1902. [Exhausted.] 27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, etc. 1802. Price, 15 cents. 28. The ]Mango in Porto Rico. 1903. [Exhausted.] 29. The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 30. Budding the Pecan. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 32. A Disease of theAVhite Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 34. Silkworm Food Plants. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 36. The "Bluing" of the Western Yellow Pine, etc. 190.3. Price, 30 cents. 37. Formation of the Spores of the Sporangia of Rhizopus Nigricans and of Phyco- myces Nitens. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 38. Forage Conditions in Eastern Washington, etc. 1903. Price, 15 centos. 39. The Propagation of the Easter Lily from Seed. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 40. Cold Storage with Reference to the Pear and Peach. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 41. The Commercial Grading of .Corn. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 42. Three Xew Plant Introductions from Japan. 1903. [Exhausted.] 43. Japanese Bamboos. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 44. The Bitter-Rot of Apples. 1903. [Exhausted.] 45. Physiological Rule of Mineral Nutrients in Plants. 1903. Price, 5 cents. 46. Propagation of Tropical Fruit Trees, etc. 1903. [Exhausted.] 47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 48. The Apple in Cold Storage. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 49. Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree. 1903. Price, 25 cents. 50. Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents. 51. ^Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents. [Continued on page 3 of cover.] 106 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 106. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD KPvOM DECEMBER, 1!)05, TO JULY, 1906. INVENTORY No. 12; Nos. 16797 to 19057. UBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN Issued December 20, 1907. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 190T. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods. Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge. Investigations of Diseases of Fruits, Merton B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge. Laboratory of Forest Pathology, Haven Metcalf, Pathologist in Charge. Plant Life History Investigations, Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge. Cotton and Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Archibald D. Shamel, Physiologist in Charge. Corn Investigations, Charles P. Hartley, Physiologist in Charge. Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations, Thomas H. Kearney, Physiologist in Charge. Soil Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge. Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, Orator F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. Drug and Poiso7wus Plant Investigations and Tea Culture Investigations, Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge. Physical Laboratory, Lyman J. Briggs, Physicist in Charge. Crop Technology Investigations, Nathan A. Cobb, Expert in Charge. Taxonomic Investigations, Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge. Farm. Management Investigations, William J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge. Ch-ain Investigaiio7is, Mark A. Carleton, Cerealist in Charge. Arlington Experimental Farm, Lee C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge. Sugar-Beet Investigations, Charles O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge. Western Agricultural Extension Investigations, Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge. Dry Land Agriculture Investigations, E. Channing Chilcott, Agriculturist in Charge. Pomological Collections, Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge. Field Investigations in Pomology, William A. Taylor and G. Harold Powell, Pomologists in Charge. Experimental Gardens and Grounds, Edward M. Byrnes, Superintendent. Vegetable Testing Gardens, W. W. Tracy, sr., Superintendent. Seed and Plant Introduction, David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. Forage Crop Investigations, Charles V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge. Seed Laboratory, Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge. Grain Standardization, John D. Shanahan, Expert in Charge. Subtropical Laboratory and Garden,' Miami, Fla., Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist in Charge. Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal, August Mayer, Expert in Charge. South Texas Garden, Brownsville, Tex., Edward C. Green, Pomologist in Charge. Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A. Knapp, Lake Charles, La., Special Agent in Charge. Editor, J. E. Rockwell. Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. Seed and Plant Introduction, scientific staff. David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. O. W. Barrett, Assistant. Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer. Charles F. Wheeler, Expert. Walter Fischer, Scientific Assistant. R. A. Young, Scientific Assistaiit. Albert Mann, Expert in Charge of Barley Investigations. F. W. Clarke, Special Agent in Charge of Malting Plant Investigations. 106 2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washhu/t07i, I), a, April 13, i907. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for publication as Bulletin No. 106 of the series of this Bureau, the accompanying- manuscript, entitled "Seeds and Plants Imported Dur- ing- the Period from December, 1905, to July, 1906.'' This manuscript has been su])mitted by the Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Seed and Phint Introduction with a view to publication. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 106 B. P. I.— 238. SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD FROM DECEMBER, 190S, TO JULY, 1906. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. Thi.s twelfth inventory of seeds and plants imported, prepared under the immediate supervision of Mr. Walter Fischer, represents the acces- sions of this Ottice between the dates of December 15, 1905, and July 27, 1906, a period of about seven months. It contains 2,200 items, which is as large a numl)er as was represented by the collections of a whole year when this Office was organized in 1898, notwithstanding the fact that the present lists are the result of a more rigid selection than at the outset. To the outsider it may seem strange that larger numbers of plants and seeds are not accumulated in so long a period. To these it may be said that it is not the object of the work of plant introduction to collect as many species and varieties of plants which may have some economic use in this country as is possible, but rather to carefully collect only such forms as can be put to a really practical use by American cultivators. This Office is informed of hosts of useful plants now growing in different parts of the world which are not yet on the program of practical plant introduction. At a small expense thou- sands of these useful plants could be gathered and placed in collections, but the cost of maintaining any one of them would in a few years far exceed the cost of procuring it anew for the definite experiments of the experts of the country who may want it for breeding purposes, as a stock on which to graft, or as a possible new crop for hitherto unused lands. The principle, then, of systematic plant introduction, as it is carried on by this Office, is to get the seeds and plants that are wanted for the solution of definite problems in the establishment of new plant industries; import them in sufficient quantities for large and conclu- sive experiments, and place them as soon as possible in the hands of experts who will carry out at once such experiments. Among the collections of new introductions included in this inven- tory there are some that are worthy of special mention here. Prin- cipal among these are the collections of our agricultural explorer 106 5 6 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. Mr. Frank N. Meyer, who was sent out to northern China in the summer of 1905 and who has been exploring the remarkable plant regions of the mountains north and west of Peking. His finds, coming as they do from a region with as severe a winter as that of the Middle States, will surel}' be, we believe, valuable to plant growers over a wide range of territor3^ In fact, the preliminary trials that have been made with these North Chinese plants in this country show that as a rule they have a degree of hardiness and resistance to disease which their close relatives from Japan, now so abundantl}^ represented in our gardens and fields, do not possess. Mr. Meyer's explorations have been made into difi'erent places, difficult and sometimes dangerous of access, and at no little sacrifice of personal comfort and risk to his health and safety. The collections cover a wide range of things for which there is a demand already created by breeding, grafting, and other experiments which have been carried on in this country during the past decade. The material sent in is now in process of propaga- tion, and as soon as ready will be sent out to experimenters. Other collections worthy of notice are a number of new sorghums from tropical Africa, the home of the sorghum plant; a collection of the interesting new wet-land root crop, the yautia, from Porto Rico; some interesting new forms of potato from Bolivia; leguminous plants for breeding as fodder producers, collected from various parts of the world; forage and fodder grasses in large numbers from many different foreign countries; the Queensland nut Macadamia, which is a possibility for California; the South China soap tree, which has recently come into some prominence in Algeria as a source of saponin, a commercial product used in the manufacture of soaps; a collection of hardy grass and forage plant seed from the Austrian Alpine garden at an altitude of 5,700 feet; three new pistache species for breeding and for stocks on which to graft the ordinary edible variety of this nut, from the borders of Afghanistan, North China, and northern Persia; a collection of West Indian yams, promising possibilities as a change from the monotony of the Irish potato; a number of new Mexican apricots for the fruit-growing areas of Texas and the Gulf States; and a very important collection of the edible-fruited and fodder cacti, made by the cactus expert of the Department, Dr. David Griffiths, who has made experimental plantings of these most inter- esting plants in the dry regions of the Southwest. David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, Washhigton, D. a, April 12, 1907. 106 INVENTORY. 16797 to 16806. From Budapest. Presented by Dr. A. de Degen, director of the Koyal Hun- garian Seed Control. Received December 15. 1905. Seeds of native Hungarian grasses, as follows: 16797. Bromis vern.\i,is. 16798. Bromis i-axxonicus. 16799. avex.\ decora. 16800. Alopeccrus brachysta- CHYUS. 16801. Festuca carpathica. 16802. Festuca elatior. 16803. PlPTATHERlM VIRESCENS. 16804. Glyceria xemoralis. 16805. Poa hybrida. 16806. Poa chaixii. 16807. Oryza sativa. Upland rice. From Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by Prof. J. Burtt Davy, agrostologist and botanist of the Department of Agriculture. Received Decem- ber 18, 1905. "Seed grown in a subtropical valley near Sucre, Bolivia, at an altitude of about 10,000 feet. It is treated as a dry-land crop, like maize." {Davy. ) 16808. KuBUS sp. Red raspberry. From Baguio, Benguet Province, P. I. Presented by Mr. W. S. Lyon, Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, P. I. Received December 11, 1905. 16809. Panicum molle. Para grass. From Georgetown, British Guiana. Presented by Mr. A. W. Bartlett, govern- ment botanist. Received December 19, 1905. "A valuable grass for pasture and forage in the Tropics. This grass grows luxii- riantly in damp meadows and is readily eaten by horses, cattle, and sheep." {Bartlett.) 16810. Xanthosoma sp. Yautia. . From Ancon, Panama. Presented by Mr. George F. Halsey. Received Decem- ber 19, 1906. "Tubers of a plant locally called Oto, Coco, or Comorata. It is very hardy and grows best in a well loosened, moist soil, and the tubers can be cut into many sections and planted like potatoes." {Halsey.) 16811. ViciA AMERICANA. ' American vetch. From Fergus Falls, Minn. Presented by Mr. 0. J. Wright. Received Decem- ber 20, 1905. This is is a native vetch which grows wild in woods and copses in the northeastern United States. It is much relished by stock and might perhaps be cultivated to some extent with profit. 106 _ '^ 8 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 16812. ViGNA UNGUICULATA. ' COTVpca. From West Branch, ]\Iich. Received through Ogeman Grain and Seed Company, December 20, 1905. 16813 to 16820. From Office of Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations. Received through Dr. R. H. True, December 9, 1905. Seeds of medicinal plants, as follows: 16813. Digitalis purpurea. Purple foxglove. "The common purple foxglove cultivated in some parts of Europe for its leaves, which are a valuable remedy. The leaves are officinal when picked during the time of flowering. This is one of the most important remedies in certain kinds of heart trouble." ( True.) 16814. Lobelia inflata. Indian tobacco. "A native weed in open situations of the eastern United States. Both seed and herb collected for drug purposes. Has an emetic, expectorant, and anti- spasmodic action. Is a strong poison, capable of producing fatal results." ( True. ) 16815. Atropa belladonna. Belladonna. "Cultivated in several parts of Europe for the' leaves and roots, which form one of the chief sources of atropine. The attractive looking fruits also contain atropine and are not rarely eaten by children with fatal results. Is sparingly cultivated in the United States for drug purposes." ( True. ) 16816. Nepeta cataria. Catnip. "A common weed of the United States, collected in its wild condition for drug purposes. It is valued as a domestic remedy for its carminative, stimu- lant, and tonic properties, due to the volatile oil present in the herb." {True.) 16817. Capsicum fastigiatum, Japanese chillies. "Cultivated in the Orient for the small bright red fruits, having a very pun- gent taste. Used in medicine for the digestantand rubifacient properties, and also for making the ground cayenne peppers of the spice market." ( True.) 16818. Capsicum fastigiatum. Small capsicum. 16819. Papaver somniferum. Asiatic poppy. "A blue-seeded variety cultivated in the Orient as a source of opium, and in parts of Europe for the seeds, from which an agreeable bland oil is expressed. Seeds from plants grown at Burlington, Vt." ( True.) 16820. Papaver somniferum. Asiatic poppy. A white-seeded variety to which the same remarks apply as to the preceding. 16821 to 16852. From the Office of Farm Management Investigations. Received December 21, 1905. A collection of grass seeds, as follows: 16821. BrOMUS RUBENS. From Caliente, Kern County, Cal., .July 2, 1904. (Agrost. 2132.) 16822. Bromus sp. From Arizona, 1904. (Agrost. 2134.) 16823. Bromus inermis. Smooth brome-grass. From Argentina. Peluff's collection, 1904. (Agrost. 2440.) 16824. Bromus inermis. Smooth brome-grass. From Arezzo, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2351.) 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1000. 9 16821 to 16852— Continued. 16825. Bromus inermis. From Austria-Hungary. Peluff's collection, 1904. 16826. Bromis pr.xtensis. From Padua, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2373.) 16827. Bromis inioloides. (Agrost. 2448.) 16828. Agrostis stolonifera. (Agrost. 2323. ) 16829. Agrostis alba. (Agrost. 2443.) 16830. Agrostis alba. From Milan, Itiily, 1904. (Agrost. 2340.) 16831. Agrostis alba. From Naples, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2341.) 16832. Agrostis alba. From Rome, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2370.) 16833. Panicularia americaxa. From J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York, N. Y. 16834. PoA nemoralis. From Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2360.) 16835. PoA pratexsis. From Padua, Italy, 1904. 16836. PoA pratexsis. From Treviso, Italy, 1904. 16837. Lolil'.m perexxe. (Agrost. 2319.) 16838. LoLiuM perenne. (Agrost. 2329.) 16839. LOLIUM PERENNE. (Agrost. 2330.) 16840. LOLIUM PERENNE. From Turin, Italy, 1904. 16841. LOLIUM PERENNE. From Milan, Italy, 1904. 16842. LOLIUM PERENNE. From Naples, Italy, 1904. 16843. LOLIUM PERENNE. From Florence, Italy, 1904. 16844. LOLIUM PERENNE. From Genoa, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2375.) 16845. LoLiuM italicum. From Mantova, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2342.) 16846. Lolium italicum. From Italy, 1904. Agrost. 2367. ) 106 (Agrost. 2350.) (Agrost. 2356. ) (Agrost. 2344.) (Agrost. 2362. ) (Agrost. 2.365.) (Agrost. 2.369.) Smootli brome-grass. V-Vgnjst. 2449.) Meadow brome-grass. Rescue grass. Creeping bent-grass. Redtop. Redtop. Redtop. Redtop. Wood meadow grass. Kentucky bluegrass. Kentucky bluegrass. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial rye-gfass. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial rye-grass. Perennial rye-grass. Italian rye-grass. Italian rye-grass. 10 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 16821 to 16852— Continued. 16847. LoLiiTM iTALicuM. Italian rye-grass. From Conegliano, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2371.) 16848. Festuca pratexsis. Meadow fescue. From Argentina. Peluff's collection, 1904. (Agrost. 2474.) 16849. Alopecurus PRATENsis. Meadow foxtail. (Agrost. 2324.) 16850. Dactylis GLOMERATA. Orchard gxass. From Padua, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2377.) 16851. Phleum PRATEXSE. Timothy. From Rome, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2366.) 16852. Hedysarum coroxarium. Sulla. From ^^aples, Italy, 1904. (Agrost. 2.397.) 16853. OxALis ORTGiESi. Oxalis. From Washington, D. C. Received through the National Botanic Garden, December 21, 1905. 16854 to 16861. Sorghum vulgare. Sorghum. From Berlin, Germany. Presented bv the Berlin Botanical Museum. Received December 20, 1905. ' Sorghum varieties from tropical Africa, as follows: 16854. Omlifer. 16858. Ortdifer. 16855. Usaramensis. 16859. Jucundus. 16856. Roxburghii. 16860. Baumannii. 16857. Bensissimus. 16861. Baumannii. 16862 to 16865. From College Park, Md. Received through Mr. H. A. Miller, Agricultural Experiment Station, December 20, 1905. 16862. Hordeum vulgare. Barley. Te7inessee Winter. (C. I. No. 257.) 16863. Avexa sativa. Oat. Sixty-Day. (C. I. No. 165.) 16864. Avexa sativa. Oat. Snoma. (C. I. No. 274.) 16865. Avexa sativa. Oat. Burt. (C. I. No. 293.) 16866. DioscoREA trifida. Yampee yam. From the Canal Zone. Presented by Mr. George F. Halsev. Received Decem- ber 27, 1905. " Roots of a variety apparently distinct from the Jamaica and Porto Rico varieties. This variety should be cultivated in hills and is said to be very productive. The roots are yellowish inside." (Barrett.) 16867. Syncarpia laurifolia. Turpentine tree. From Melbourne, Australia. Presented by Prof. W. R. Guilfoyle, director of the Botanic Gardens. Received December 29, 1905. 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 11 16867— Continued. "A tree 100 to 150 feet high with diameter 4 to 5 feet; native of tlie tropical coast regiona of New South Wales and (Queensland. Valuable timber tree, esi)ecially for posts and underground situations; also for piles, as the resinous matter contnined xn the wood makes it resistant to damp, the attacks of white ants, and the Teredo. Entirely unprotected piles exposed to the waves for twelve years were found abso- lutely free from decay and the attacks of the Teredo. The wood is also ditlicult and slow to l)urn, a useful property in building lumber. An oleo-resin, in degree and character something between "Venice turpentine and Canada balsam, contained in the wood is best collected by felling the tree, when it exudes between the bark and sapwood in small drops, which mav be scraped off and the resin collected in a pure state." (./. Jf. Maiden.) 16868. Cekopegia fusca. From Grand Canary, Canary Islands. Presented by Mr. Alaricus Delmard. Received December 21, 1905. 16869. Cyxara scolymus. Artichoke. From Paris. France. Received through Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., December 29, 1905. Seed of the Globe or Paris artichoke. 16870. DiosPYROS sp. Sapote negro. From Uruapan, Michoai-an, Mexico. Presented by Mr. C. G. Pringle. Received December 22. 1905. 16871. Persea gratissima. From Miami, Fla. Presented by Mr. S. B. Bliss. Trapp. Avocado. Received December 18, 1905. 16872. Citrus trifoliata X aurantium. Citrange. From the Plant Breeding Laboratory. Received December 22, 1905. Trees of the Morton citrange, a hvbrid between the trifoliate and the sweet orange, developed by Dr. H. J. Webber. "(P. B. L. No. 771.) 16873 to 16899. From Brunswick, Germany. Presented by the Ducal Botanic Gardens. Received December 21, 1905. A collection of seeds, mostly grass and leguminous forage plants, as follows: 16873. Medicago apiculata. 16887. 16874. Medicago echinus. 16888. 16875. Medicago murex. 16889. 16876. IMedicago orbicularis. 16890. 16877. IMedicago scutellata. 16891. 16878. Medicago terebellum. 16892. 16879. Medicago tribuloides. 16893. 16880. Onobrychis christa-galli. 16894. 16881. Onobrychis caput-galli. 16895. 16882. Lathyrus ochrus. 16896. 16883. PisuM elatius. 16897. 16884. PisuM arvense, 16898. 16885. PisuM SATIVUM. 16899. 16886. SCORPIURUS SULCATA. 106 SCORPIURUS MURICATA. SCORPIURUS VERMICULATA. SCORPIURUS SUBVILLOSA. Erodium GRUINUM. Erodium malachoides. avena brevis. a vena sativa diffusa. AvENA SATIVA DIFFUSA. Agropyron PUNGENS. Bromus brachystachys. Bromus sterilis. HORDEUM AEGICERAS. HORDEUM ZEOCRITON. 12 seeds and plants imported. 16900. Cephalaria tatarica. From Stockholm, Sweden. Presented by the Albano Botanic Gardens. Received December 21, 1905. 16901 to 16908. From Saharanpur, India. Presented by Prof. H. M. Leake, economic botanist, Government Botanic Gardens. Received December 21, 1905. Grass seeds, as follows: 16901. Syntherisma sanguinalis. Fing-er grass. 16902. Panicum TRYPHERON. Guinea gTass. 16903. Paspalum dilatatu.m. Larg-e water grass. 16904. Chaetochloa glauca. Yellow foxtail. 16905. EucHLAENA MEXicANA. Teosinte. 16906. Eleusine aegyptiaca. 16907. Andropogon pertusus. 16908. Andropogon halepensis. Johnson grass. 16909 to 16927. From near Peking, China. Received through Mr. Frank X. Meyer, December 26, 1905. Cuttings of various fruit trees, grapevines, and ornamentals, as follows: 16909. ULMUssp. Elm. From Nankou. " (No. 31. ) A broad-leaved elm suitable for small gardens and i^arks." {Meyer.) 16910. DiosPYROs kaki. ' Persimmon. From Ming Tombs Valley. "(No. 97.) A small, seedless persimmon, with bright, orange-red fruits attaining 2 inches in diameter; later in ripening than the large ones (S. I'. I. No. 16912) and not so good. The trees, however, grow to a larger size, and with their leaves dropped off and loaded with orange- colored fruits are very ornamental. Before falling the leaves also assume beautiful colors. ' ' ( Meyer. ) / 16911. Pyrus sinensis. Pear. From Tcha-ching. "(No. 120.) A fine, white pear with melting flesh; is one of China's finest pears. Comes in late, but, being a poor keeper, disap- pears very early from the markets." {Meyer.) (Same as S. P. I. No. 16916.) 16912. DiosPYRos KAKI. Persimmon. From Ming Tombs Valley. "(No. 104. ) A most valuable fruit. The bright, orange-colored fruits attain a diameter of 4i inches and are perfectly seedless. Bears shipping extremely well if picked when not quite ripe. Can be kept frozen hard if picked too ripe, and if care is taken can be shipped long distances. Finallv, their taste is delicious and they would be highly esteemed in America as a table fruit." {Meyer.) (See also S. P. I. No. 16921. ) 16913. DiosPYROs KAKI. Persiramon. From Ming Tombs. "(No. 33.) A larger variety of seedless persimmon than is generally seen, but the fact that they grew on a young tree may acctount for this. It ripens, however, a fortnight later than those sent in under Nos. 16912 and 16921; otherwise the same description applies to it." {Meyer.) 16914. Catalpa bungei. Catalpa. From Peking. "(No. 13.) The real Catalpa bimgei. A fine tree, said to be covered in spring with pink-white flowers; a favorite tree in old temple yards. This one comes from the Yellow Temple, a short distance north of Peking." {Meyer.) 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 13 16909 to 16927— Continuod. 16915. PoPtiLUSSp. Poplar. From Hwai-jou. "(No. 15.) This poplar seems to be a favorite tree for temple vards; it grows to a very large size, has a straight trunk with branches trimmed high from the ground'and with large, dark green leaves. It will be much appreciated as an avenue or park tree." {Meyer.) 16916. Pyrus sinensis. Pear. From Tcha-ching. (No. 109.) For description see No. 16911. 16917. PRUNrs .\RMENiAC.\. Apricot. Vnnn 8han-hai-kwan. "(Nos. 28 and 29.) A wild apricot with small fruits; apparently grows wild in a few cafions." {Meyer. ) 16918. PRUNUSsp. Cherry. From Tang-shan. "(No. 93. ) Apparently a cherry which grows in bush- like form, much resembling a red currant bush. According to the Chine.«e, the fruits are small but sweet, ripening in early June." {Meyer.) , 16919. Amyodaus persica. Peach. From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 32.) A wild peach found near an old monastery, but occurring in many different places— probably escaped from cultivation." (Meyer. ) 16920. Moris ai.ba. Mulberry. From Ming Tombs. " ( No. 92. ) A form with very, deeply cut leaves, which appear to be decidedly different from the common type." {Meyer.) 16921. DiosPYROS KAKi. Persimmon. From Ming Tombs Vallev. "(Nos. 104 and 105.) These trees are grafted upon Avild stock and are planted 20 to 30 feet apart. Being slow growers, peaches are planted between the young trees and after, vards taken out when the persimmons need the space.' They seem to love a somewhat sheltered position in the foothills of the mountains in a soil made of decomposed rock." Ufeyrr. ) 16922. Fraxinus sp. -^sh. From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 11.) A decidedly ornamental shade tree; grows in dry situations." {Meyer.) 16923. !\IoRi;s alba. Mulberry. From Ming Tombs. "(No. 91.) Another form with deeply laciniated leaves." {Meyer.) 16924. Pyrus sinensis. Pear. From Tcha-ching. "(No. 119.) An attractive, medium-sized white pear with a long stem and nonmelting flesh; much relished by the Chinese." ( Meyer. ) 16925. PoPULUSSp. Poplar. From Kaulitang. "(No. 38.) This poplar thrives in sandy soil and is planted largely on sandy wastes where no other tree would flourish. The Chinese use the wood in building houses, coffins, etc. A rather ornamental tree with silvery bark . " ( Meyer. ) 16926. PoPULUs sp. Poplar. From Chang-li. "(No. 30.) A very large poplar with a straight, smooth trunk; well fitted for park or avenue planting." {Meyer.) 16927. ViTissp. Grape. From Hsuen-h wa-f u. ' ' ( Nos. 102, 106, and 107. ) A fine white grape, berries very long and in heavy bunches; commands high prices and is really a fine table grape; can be kept in paper-lined baskets in a cool place until Chinese New Year (early February ) . " ( 3feyer. ) 106 14 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 16928. ViciA sp. From Thomas, Oreg. Presented by Mr. S. W. Gaines. Vetch. Received December, 1905. 16929 and 16930. Quercus spp. Truffle oaks. From Paris, France. Received through Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., December 30, 1905. 16929. QuERcrs ilex. 16930. Quercus pubescens. Trees introduced for truffle culture. Holly oak. 16931 to 16939. From St. Louis, Mo. Received through the Missouri Botanical Gardens, Janu- ary 2, 1906. A collection of roots, as follows: 16931. Maranta kegeljani. 16932. Calatrea princeps. 16933. Calathea crotalifera. 16934. Calathea sp. 16935. Calathea ornata sanderi- ana. 16936. Calathea oppenheimiana. 16937. Calathea vittata. 16938. Colocasia neo-(;uineensis. 16939. Maraxta leuponeura ker- choviana. 16940 to 16944. From Chico, Cal. Grown at the Plant Introduction Garden in 1905. Received December 22, 1905. Seeds, as follows: 16940. Arachis iiypogaea. GroM-n from No. 4253. 16941. Arachis hypogaea. Grown from No. 9406. 16942. VOANDZEIA subterranea. Grown from No. 10450. 16943. Arachis hypogaea. Grown from No. 10622. 16944. Arachis hypogaea. Grown from No. 11140. 16945 to 16948. From Victoria, Kameruu, Africa. • Fla., January 3, 1906. 16945. Amomum melegueta. Peanut. Peanut. Woandzu. Peanut. Peanut. Received through Mr. H. Nehrling, Gotha, Paradise seed. ' ' Native of tropical \v estern A f rica. This plant belongs to the ginger family. From a long, scaly rootstock there are produced leafy branches and short, leaf- less, flower-bearing branches bearing a single white-purple flower. The fruit is red, large, fleshy, and pear-shaped, containing a large number of brown seeds called paradise seed or Guinea grains. Used only in veterinary medicine and in adulterating liquors and pepper." ( Wheeler.) 16946. Xanthosoma sp. Yautia. ''Xanlhosoma violaceum; cultivated." {Nehrling.) 106 DECEMBER, I'JOo, TU JULY, I'JOG. 15 16945 to 16948 Continued. 16947. Xanthosoma sp. Yautia. "With light green petioles; cultivated." (Xehrling.) 16948. Xanthosoma sp. Yautia, "Oducasia oiitiquornin; cultivated." {Nehrling.) 16949 to 16979. From Paris, France. Received through Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., December 29, 1905. A collection of seeds, as follows: 16949. Arrhenatherum elatius. 16950. Trisictim pratense. 16951. AvENA PUHESCEX.S. 16952. AnTHRISCUS SYLVESTRIS. 16953. Brachypodiu.m pinnatum. 16954. Brachypodium sylvaticum. 16955. Bromis inerims. 16956. Coronh^la vakia. 16957. Cytisus proliferus albus. 16958. DaCTYLIS GLOMERATA. 16959.. Festuca dumbttorum. 16960. Festuca elatior. 16961. Festuca iieterophylla. 16962. Festuca ovixa. 16963. Festuca pratensis. 16964. Festuca rubra. 16965. Festuca tenuifolia. 16966. HoLCUs mollis. 16967. Melica ciliata. 16968. Melica coerulea. 16969. Melilotus alba. 16970. Paspalum stoloniferum. 16971. Phalaris arundinacea. 16972. Phleum pratense. 16973. Poa compressa. 16974. Poa fertilis. 16975. Poa sudetica. 16976. Stipa tenacissima. 16977. Trifolium incarnatum. 16978. Trifolium incarnatum. Late. 16979. Trifolium incarnatum. Extra late; white flowering. 3517— No. 106—07 2 Tall oat-grass. "Dovnxy oat-grass. Smooth brome-grass. Cro'wn vetch. Broom. Orchard grass. Tall fescue. Various-leafed fescue. Sheep's-fescue. Meadow fescue. Red fescue. Slender-leafed fescue. Creeping soft-grass. White melilot. Reed canary grass. Timothy. Canadian bluegrass. Esparto grass. Crimson clover. Crimson clover. Crimson clover. 16 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPOKTED. 16980 to 16984. Oryza sativa. From Sivaganga, Madura district, South India. Minor, January 4, 1906. 16980. Rice. Received through Mr. A. P. .heragasamha. "(No. 1.) An elegant, very small-sized rice of exceptional whiteness when properly cleaned. It requires an old, well-cultivated i^oil and will then yield, say, 3,000 pounds per acre or more according to manure applied. The straw is finer and less tough than that of the commoner kinds of paddy and hence is especially valuable as fodder. In good soil itia a42 to 5 months' crop. ' ' ( Minor. ) 16981. Varikarudan. (No. 2.) 16982. MUagi. "(No. 3.) Nos. 2 and 3 give fine white rice, preferred to all others by the higher classes in this part of India. The flavor is supposed to be excep- tionally good. Both are hardy and require no exceptional treatment. In an average soil they yield 3,000 pounds per acre and in a well-manured soil up to 5,000 pounds per acre. The straw is good fodder for cattle. The duration of crop is ordinarily 4j to bh months." {Minor.) 16983. Vellakattai, or Sirumanian. (No. 4.) 16984. Erangal, or Naryan. "(No. 5. ) Nos. 4 and 5 yield a large white rice which is considered particularly nourishing by the lower classes; very hardy, vigor- ous grower, even in a comparatively poor soil. An ordinary outturn, with little or no manure, is 2,500 pounds per acre, which may be nearly doubled by manuring. The straw is coarser than that olitained from Nos. 2 and 3. The crop matures in 3j to 4 months, according to soil and other conditions." {Minor.) 16985 to 17034. From Erfurt, Germany. Received through Seeds of forage crops, as follows : 16985. Astragalus falcatus. 16986. avena flavescens. 16987. Bromus pratensis. 16988. Dactylis glomerata. 16989. Festuca arundinacea. 16990. Festuca duriuscula. 16991. Festuca el.\tior. 16992. Festuca heterophylla. 16993. Festuca ovina. 16994. Festuca pratensis. 16995. Festuca rubra. 16996. Festuca tenuifolia. 16997. luzula albida. 16998. Lathyrus hirsutus. 16999. Melilotus coerulea. 17000. Melilotus altxssima. 106 Haage & Schmidt, December 28, 1905. 17001. Melilotus officinalis. 17002. Melilotus parviflora. 17003. Melilotus segetalis. 17004. Melilotus sulcata. 17005. Phalaris arundinacea. 17006. PiSUM JOMARDI. 17007. Plantago psyllium. 17008. Spartium scoparium. 17009. ViCIA AGRIGENTINA. 17010. ViCIA AMBIGUA. 17011. ViciA biennis. 17012. ViCIA CALCARATA. 17013. ViciA cassubica. 17014. ViciA cordata. 17015. Vicia cornigera. 17016. Vicia cuspipata. DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 17 16985 to 17034— Continued. 17017. ViCIA DISPERMA. 17018. ViCIA KERRCGINEA. 17019. ViCIA CERARDI. 17020. ViCIA CJLOBOSA. 17021. ViCIA GRANDIFLORA. 17022. VlCIA HYHRIDA. 17023. ViCIA LUTEA. 17024. ViCIA MACROCAKPA. 17025. ViCIA MULTIFLURA. 17026. VlCIA OXOBRYCHIOIDES. 17027. VlCIA PANNONICA. 17028. ViCIA PEREGRINA. 17029. VlCIA I'lCTA. 17030. VlCIA I'SEUDO-CRACCA. 17031. VlCIA SYLVATICA. 17032. ViciA SPURIA. 17033. VlClA STRIATA. 17034. VlCIA TRICOLOR. 17035 to 17050. From Sydney, New South VVales. Presented by Prof. J. II. INIaiden, director of Botanic Gardens. Received January 2, 190(5. Panicum prolutum. Paspalum brevifolium. Pennisetum compres- 8UM. pollinia fulva. Chaetochloa AUREA. Sporobolus lindleyi. Stipa elegantissima. Stipa tuckeri. 17035. Andropogon bombyci- 17043. NCS. 17044. 17036. Astrebla pectixata. 17045. 17037. Astrebla elymoides. 17038. Cenchruh australis. 17046. 17039. ClILORIS TRUNCATA. 17047. 17040. Chloris VENTRIC08.\. 17048. 17041. Chrysopogon gryllus. 17049. 17042. PaNICCM DECOMPOSITCM. 17050. 17051 and 17052. Bouteloua spp. From Silver City, N. Mex. Received through Mr. James K. Metcalfe, January 5, 1906. 17051. Bouteloua curtipendula. 17052. Bouteloua oligostachya. 17053. SOLANUM COMMERSONI. Tall grama grass. Blue grama grass. Aquatic potato. From Burlington, Vt. Received through Prof. William Stuart, of the Agricul- tural Experiment Station, January 6, 1906. Tubera grown from stock obtained through Dr. Edouard Meckel, of Marseille, France. " Heckel is not at all of the opinion that Holannm comniersonii should replace our common potato; but if it is adapted to swampy locations it would become very valuable to us, and possibly nonbitter hybrids might be produced for poorly drained soils by cross fertilization." (L.' Witlmuck, Gartenflora, 54: 452, 1905.) (See note to No. 10324.) 17054. SoLANUM COMMERSONI. Aquatic potato. From Santa Rosa, Cal. Received through Mr. Luther Burbank, November 28, 1905, and February 10, 1906. Tubers grown from No. 10324. "Has rather small vines, produces an enormous amount of flowers all summer and a reasonable amount of seed balls, which, how- ever, unless pollenized from some other variety never produce a seed. Owing to its wandering disposition, not extra (juality, and not being very productive it will never become popular. I judge from what I have read in the f rench papers that the bluish variety is better." {Burbank.) 106 18 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 17055 to 17058. From Buitenzorg, Java. Presented by Doctor Treub, director of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. Received January 5, 1906. 17055. Arachis hypogaea. Peanut. ^^ Katjang holle." 17056. Arachis hypogaea. Peanut. " Kafjang banah waspada." 17057. Arachis hypogaea. • Peanut. ' ' Katjang amerika. ' ' 17058. Voandzeia subterranea. Woandzu. ' ' Katjang bogor. ' ' 17059. Festuca pratensis. Meadow fescue. From Marysville, Kans. Received through Mr. Frank W. Oakley, January 5, 1906. 17060 and 17061. From Honolulu, Hawaii. Received through Dr. J. N. Rose, of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., December 29, 1905. Seeds, as follows: 17060. Oreodoxa regia. Royal palm. (No. 05/876.) 17061. Aristo lochia sp. (No. 05/875.) 17062. Solanum melongena. Eggplant. From Trebizond, Turkey. Presented by Mr. Vital Ojalvo, vice-consul, tlirough Mr. Frank Benton. Received January 6, 1906. Seed of a violet-colored variety. 17063 to 17066. From Moscow, Russia. Presented by Prof. William R.Williams, of the Moscow Agricultural Institute. Received January 8, 1906. 17063. Alopecurus ruthenicus. 17065. Bromus racemosus. 17064. Bromus mollis. 17066. Bromus sylvaticus. 17067 and 17068. From Paris, France. Received through Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., January 9, 1906. 17067. Melilotus coERULEA. Blue sweet clover. 17068. CORONILLA SCOKPIOIDES. 17069 and 17070. From Dreshertown, Pa. Received through Thomas Meehan & Sons, January 9, 1906. Stocks upon which to graft imported cuttings, as follows: 17069. Malus malus. Apple 17070. Pyrus COMMUNIS. Pear. 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 19 17071. Panicxim laevifolium. From Pretoria, TraiiHvaal, South Africa. Presented by Prof. J. Burtt Davy, agrostolofrist and botanist of the Department of Agriculture. Received Jan- uary 9, 19()«. 17072 to 17075. Eleusixe coracana. From P.ombay Presidency, India. Received through Mr., F. Fletcher, Deputy Director of Agriculture, January 9, 1906. 17072. " Mukti Nagli. ' ' ( Close heads. ) 17073. " Zipri Nagli." (Open heads.) 17074. " Xagli." (Red.) 17075. "Nagli." (White.) From Lonawla. 17076 to 17092. From Paris, France. Received through 1906. Seeds of forage crops, as follows: 17076. Anthyllis vulneraria. 17077. Astragalus FALCATUS. 17078. Brassica oleracea. 17079. Br.\ssica oleracea. 17080. CyTISUS SCOPARIUS. 17081. Festuca dumetorum. 17082. Festica heterophylla. 17083. Festuca ovina. 17084. Festica RUBRA. 17085. Festuca tenuifolia. 17086. Lotus villosus. 17087. ]\1edicago media. 17088. poa fertilis. 17089. PoA nemohalis. 17090. Pi>A sempervirens. 17091. PoA thivialis. 17092. Ulex europaeus. Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., January 9, Kidney vetch.. Milk vetch. Improved branching borecole. Thousand-headed kale. Common broom. Various-leafed fescue. Sheep's-fescue. Red fescue. Slender-leaved fescue. Greater bird's-foot trefoil. Sand lucern. Wood meadow grass. Roug'h-stalked meadow grass. Furze, gorse, or whin. 17093. Chrtsophyllum cainito. Star-apple. From Washington, D. C. Plants grown in the Department greenhouse from seed obtained in 1904 by Mr. G. N. Collins in Jamaica, British West Indies; numbered January 10, 1906. Fruit from which seeds were obtained was large and light colored. 17094 and 17095. Eragrostis abyssinica. TefF. From Abyssinia. Received through His Excellency S. A. Ras Makomen, Jan- uary 12, 1906. 17094. Pearl white seed. 17095. Brown seed mixed with white. "Teff is the staple food of the Abyssinians. Considering the general phy- sique of the nation and that teff is practically the sole means of nourishment, as the poorer classes seldom taste meat, the cereal is undoubtedly rich in nitrog- 106 50 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 17094 and 17095— Continued. enous matter. It possesses, too, a sufficient quantity of starchy matter to con- stitute a fairly hygienic diet. Teff is utilized as follows: Ground into flour; made into a semiliquid or thin pante consistency by adding water, and placed in earthen jars. The leaves of the 'Geaho' (gesho) plant, which yield a fer- ment, are added. When fermentation is complete the sirupy mixture is slowly poured on the surface of well-heated, circular, fiat baking pans. After a cer- tain amount of manipulation and turning over, a semiaerated, flat, round cake is the result. This keeps for months without deterioration, is broken into fragments and dried in the sun. The dried bread is used as their chief supply when at war or on expeditions. Teff undoubtedly possesses highly nutritious qualities and is decidedly hiore digestible than wheat. It could therefore be exploited as an invalid food. Teff is not known to possess distinct drought- resisting properties. ' ' ( Extract from letter from the British consul at Adis Ababa, Abyssinia.) 17096. Phaseolus radiatus. Mung bean. From Augusta, Ga. Received through the N. L. Willet Seed Company, January 12, 1906. Newman. 17097 to 17100. From Channing, Tex. Received through Mr. A. H. Leidigh, January 12, 1906. 17097. Triticum durum. Macaroni wheat. Galgalos. Grown from No. 9872. 17098. Triticum DicoccuM. Black emmer. Grown from No. 11650. 17099. Panicum miliaceum. Broom-corn millet. Black Voronezh. Grown from No. 9425. 17100. HoRDEUM vuLGARE. Barley. Tennessee Winter. Grown from No. 11193. 17101 to 17103. From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Received through Mr. A. Gage, acting superin- tendent. Royal Botanic Gardens, January 13, 1906. A collection of tubers, as follows : 17101. Amorphophallus CAMPANULATUS. Stanley's washtub. The members of this genus of aroids are natives of India and other parts of ' tropical Asia, where they are cultivated for the starch which is so abundant in the rootstock. Atnorphopliallus campanulatus has a tuber weighing 8 to 10 pounds, shaped like a flat cheese; spathe nearly 2 feet broad and 15 inches high, with a horizontal, spreading, fluted border, red-purple on the border, then grayish white spotted and purple in the center. Doctor White says of it that when in flower the fetor it exhales is most overpowering, and so per- fectly resembles that of carrion as to induce flies to cover the club of the spadix with their eggs. 17102. COLOCASIA ANTIQUORUM ESCULENTA (?) (Labeled "Alocasia antiquorum." ) 17103. Alocasia indica. Alocasia. "These roots are cultivated to some extent throughout India, but do not occupy so important a place in the domestic economy there as do the taros in Polynesia or the yautias in tropical America." {Barrett. ) 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 21 17104. riiALAUis CANAKiENSis. Canary grass. From Malta. Received through ^Ir. J. Borg, of the St. Antonio (iardens, Jan- uary 15, 1905. Malta canary seed. "Requires the same culture aa the late varieties of \vheat. Very productive and remunerative, although not much grown in Malta. The grain is slightlv larger in size than the best Sicilian canary seed; the plant is also stouter." {Borg.)' 17105. OiNNA.MOMUM CAMPHORA. Camphor. From Paris, France. Received through Vilmorin-Andrieux -k Co., January 15, 1906. This plant is the source of camphor, the gum being obtained f»-om the extracted juice. The tree is difficult to transplant and is best propagated by seeds, sown as soon as ripe in a shaded bed, the seedlings being transplanted when very small into pots and kept thus until ready to plant out permanently. The soil best suited to camphor is a sandy loam. 17106 to 17130. Amygdalus communis. Almond. From (iirgenti, Italy. Received through Hon. Francis Ciotta, United States consular agent, January 15, 1906. Almond cuttings, as follows: 17106. Comutella. This is a plant requiring special care, but is highly valued for its sweet and agreeable flavor. The tree will attain a vigorous and strong growth; can be cultivated in all climates. 17107. Cavaliera. . In this the vegetation is especially vigorous, resists frost, yields well, and the fruit is extremely tender, being much sought after as a table fruit. 17108. Carcia. In this the vegetation is extremely strong, resists the rigors of winter, produces richly, and is incomparable for roasting and for making the finest torroni, the tower-like almond cakes made of almonds and honey. 17109. Bianca. The tree is of medium development, wood not very solid, yields well, fruit extremely sweet and highly valued for table use. 17110. Selvaggia. This tree has great resistance, grows in a very luxuriant manner and regular form; bears a tender fruit used by preference for the ordinary torroni, almond cakes of the common quality. 17111. Carina. This tree is of medium development ana is very resistant to frost and inclement weather. It produces abundant small, tender fruit which is excellent for pastry and for the almond paste. 17112. Regaliana. This tree is of medium size and of ordinary resistance; produces abundantly a fruit valuable for the table, exquisitely sweet and sought for in all the markets for its excellent qualities. 17113. Inglese. This takes its name from the extensive use to which it is put in the manufacture of special pastes in England. It is very delicate and tender, superior for the table and excellent also for making sweetmeats. 106 22 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.' 17106 to 17130— Continued. 17114. Tramontana. Its resistance to frost, which is strong in this almond tree, enables it to grow vigorously in the tramontane regions without injury from exposure to those northern winds. The fruit is sweet and sought after for confectionery. 17115. Washington. 17116. Sicilia. 17117. Racalmuto. 17118. Slgnora. 17119. Mantia. 17120. Gioia. 17121. Sanfillppo. 17122. Striata. 17123. Sanguisuga. 17124. Fra Elia. 17125. Milocca. 17126. Kruger. 17127. Gioglio. 17128. Nocciola. 17129. Roccn Rossa 17130. Giapponese. 17131. Elymus virginicus submuticus. Wild rye-e^rass. From Union, Oreg. Received through Mr. George Gammie, of the Agricultural Experiment Station, January 13, 1906. A native of the Rocky Mountains. A coarse, perennial grass, growing on alluvial river banks or in rich low grounds. This grass frequently, forms a considerable por- tion of native meadow lands and makes a coarse hay. It starts growth early in the spring and thus affords a good pasturage. 17132. SoLANUM COMMERSONI. Aquatic potato. From New York, N. Y. Received through J. M. Thorburn & Co., January 15, 1906. Violet tubers procured direct from Mr. J. Labergerie, and will be compared with the form imported direct from Heckel and the forms received from Luther Burbank. (For description see "Le Solanum Commerspnii et ses Variations Pomme de Terra de L' Uruguay (Variete Violette)," by J. Labergerie.) 17133. Sechium edule. Chayote. From South Island, S. C. Received through Gen. E. P. Alexander, January 12, 1906. 17134. Phaseolus radiatus. Mung bean. From Chillicothe, Tex. Received through Mr. A. B. Conner, December 23, 1905. JJdid. Grown from No. 8541. 17135 to 17137. Oryza sativa. Rice. From Yokohama, Japan. Received through the Yokohama Nursery Company, January 9, 1906. Japanese rice grown in Shizuoka Ken district, as follows: 17135. Tamanishiki. 17136. Araki. 17137. Mochi. A glutinous variety mostly used for cakes, candy, etc. 106 DECEMBER, UK)5, TO JULY, 1906. 23 17138 to 17140. From Manila, V. 1. Received through Mr. W. .'>. Lymi, liortifulturist, lUircaii of Agriculture, January 1(5, 1906. 17138. T.iiirM I'ldLippiNENSE. Benguet lily. " Its gra,«sy foliage is etrikhig and grai-efnl. It forces licre athiiirably, and I think should be a good sul)je(t for a forcing Itiilh in cultivation." (Li/(»i. ) 17139. SxERcrLi.v foetida. ^^JiobiKj." A tall, handsome, smooth tree with whirled horizontal branches, large compound leaves, ami large, dull red flowers appearing with the leaves in spreading j)anicles. The fruit consists of five large follirles, containing 10 to 15 smooth, black seeds the size of lilberts, which are masted and eaten like chestnuts^ Native throughout the tropics of the Old World. 17140. AcTixoRiivTis c.\L.\j*PARi.\. Palm. "One of the most attractive palms of the Areceae group that 1 have cvtr seen. I think it would prove a useful subject for house decorations, as «iui native gardeners grow it to a large size (8 to 10 feet) in flat, shallow, l'_'-inch pans." {Lijun.) 17141. Gakcinia morella. GS-amboge. From Kingston, Jamaica, British West Indies. Received through Dr. W. Faw- cett, director of Hope Gardens, January IS, 1906. Seeds obtained for the purpose of propagating seedling stocks upon which to graft the mangosteen. 17142 and 17143. Passiflora spp. From Washington, D. C. Plants grown on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, and numbered for convenience in recording distribution on Janu- ary 18, 1906. 17142. Passiflora racemosa. Passion flower. 17143. Passiflora quadrangularis variegata. Granadilla. 17144. Oryza sativa. Rice. From North Galveston, Tex. Received through Dr. S. A. Knapp, Januarv l.'i, 1906. Egyptian. "The Egyptian rice is locally known in Louisiana as Bull rice and has been grown there for a great many years. It has a large l)erry of the Japanese type — that is, thick and short kernel — somewhat larger than the Kiushi rice, dark colored and nnich softer when it first ripens, so that it answers excellently for the purpose of stock food. It also has more protein than the ordinary rice. The characteristics of its grow th are that it requires very little water, has a strong stalk, abundant leaf, is a heavy producer, and will generally make a crop even though the other rices fail. For these reasons it is grown in Louisiana as a stock food." {Knapjp. ) 17145. Diospyros virgtniana. Persimmon. From Augusta, Ga. Received through the P. J. Berckmans Company, Janu- ary 19, 1906. Seedling stocks for use in grafting imported scions. 17146. Garcinia mangostana. Mangosteen. From Buitenzorg, Java. Received through Dr. M. Treub, director of the Botan- ical Gardens, January 19, 1906. 106 24 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPOETED. 17147. HoRDEUM DisTicHUM NUTANS. Barley. From Fort Atkinson, Wis. Received through Mr. W. D. Hoard, January 17, 1906. Hanna. 17148. AVENA SATIVA. Oat. From Brandon, Wis. Received through Mr. David Jones, January 20, 1906. Kherson. 17149. Xanthosoma sp. Yautia. From Linares, Nueva Leon, Mexico. Presented by Dr. F. Franceschi, Santa Barbara, Cal. Received January 22, 1906. Linares. 17150. Rehmannia angulata. From Narberth, Pa. Received through Mr. William Tricker, January 19, 1906. "Introduced by James Veitch & Son, London, England. A native of central China; has proved hardy on the Cotswold Hills, England, 750 feet above sea level, without protection; and with moderate protection withstood the severe winter of 1904-5 in Massachusetts. Awarded certificate of merit at Royal Horticultural Society in 1903. Seedlings raised in the spring of 1905, which were planted out under similar condi- tions with other herbaceous plants, made rapid progress and some commenced to flower in July and were still in flower October 19. Others probably will not flower until 1906, exhibiting more the character of biennials. The plants are vigorous, leaves radical laciniate, of a deep green color and 12 to 15 inches long. Some plants sent up one spike from the main crown, while others sent up several spikes but weaker. Main spikes have produced lateral growths with flowers. Several spikes were 4 feet tall. Flowers like Bignonia grandifora (except in color) are produced at the axils of the leaves. Size, 3 inches in diameter, color, rose-purple with a . rich yellow throat spotted with purple. The individual flower resembles Tncarvillcd delavayi. Plants thrive in ordinary garden soil; should have full sunshine and ample'space between plants— about 2 feet. Flowers are good for cutting, remaining several days in good condition." ( Tricker.) 17151. Citrus aurantium. Orange. From Siang-tan, Hunan Province, China. Received from Mr. S. A. McCalla, through Prof. H. A. Morgan, director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Knoxville, Tenn., January 17, 1906. Orange seeds said by Doctor Webber to be of a tangerine type. " The oranges grown hereabouts are of both the loose-skinned and the tight-skinned varieties. None of them are especially good. The town of Li-ling, which has a latitude of 27° 42' N., is the northern limit of the tight-skinned oranges, but the loose-skinned variety grows as far north as Chang-sha, which is probably about 400 feet above sea level. Nearly every winter there are one or two big snows. I have seen two in the last five years about 9 inches deep; also, from time to time there are freezes, but the orange trees never seem to suffer." {McCalla.) 17152 to 17162. From Chi-li Province, China. Received through Mr. Frank N. Meyer, December, 1905. Cuttings of fruits and vines, as follows: 17152. Prunus ARMENiACA. Apricot. From Tchu-chung. "(No. 118.) This is one of the finest white apricots that grows in China, as I have been told by the natives. They describe the fruit as being very large and white skinned, with a few red spots." {Meyer.) 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 25 17152 to 17162— Continued. 17153. Prcnus armeniaca. Apricot. From Tcha-ching. "(No. 113.) Tlie kernels of this apricot are sold as almonds; they are small but taste fine. The trees grow very bushy and are grafted upon wild stock." (Meyer.) 17154. Prints armeniaca. Apricot. From Ttha-chinur. "(No. 112.) A large, red apricot described ]>y the natives as Iteiiig very good." [Meyer.) 17155. ViTis viNiFERA. Grape. From Chang-ii. " ( No. 114. ) This is a very fine white grape belonging to the .V?6.sc'/< group. In Nortli China it commands more than three times as much money as is paid for the puri)le grape." [Meyer.) 17156. ViTis VINIFERA. Grape. From Hsuen-hwa-fu. "(No. 101.) A splendid green-white grape, con- sidered as the best grape here in China. The berry is very long and the bunches are rather large. The taste is fresh sweet, without being too sweet. An e.Kcellent table grape. It is apparently a kind of Muscat grape, not being free skinned and having the same general appearance." [Meyer. ) 17157. ViTis sp. Grape. From Chang-li. "(No. 115.) A dark purple grape; a very heavy bearer. The taste is a trifle watery, but otherwise it is all right. Is a very late grape, the last which appears here on the markets. Free skin; ijroduces very large bunches. ' ' [Meyer. ) It 15 8. Vrns sp. Grape. From Ilsuen-hwa-fu. " (No. 103. ) A small purple grape from this region, where it gets intensely cold; the vines are buried (jver winter." [Meyer.) 17159. ViTis sp. Grape. From Hwai-jou. "(No. 95.) A purple grai)e, said to be early and of good quality." [Meyer.) 17160. ViTis sp. Grape. From Hwai-jou. "(No. 94.) A white grape growing near Hwai-jou. I -was not able to see any fruit, but am told that it is an early, sweet grape." ( Meyer. ) 17161. ViTissp. Grape. From Chang-li. "(No. 116.) A light purple colored grape; heavy bearer; large bunches; free skin. Tastes somewhat watery. Might do fine as a wine producer. Is well esteemed hereon account of coming the last in season." ( Meyer. ) 17162. ( Undetermined. ) From Hwai-jou "(No. 110. ) Cuttings of a vine used around here for .tying grapes to the trellises. Looks like Aristolochia. Is not produced here, but comes from farther south. It is very tenacious material, admirably fit for the the purpose." [Meyer.) 17163 to 17166. From Queretaro, Mexico. Received through Senor Carlos J. Urquiza, January 20, 1906. Alfalfa. Broad bean. Lentil. 17163. Medicago s.\tiva. 17164. ViCIA faba. 17165. Lens esculenta. 17166. ( Undetermined. ) Shotolillo. 106 26 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 17167 to 17181. From Chi-li Province, China. Received through Mr. Frank N. Meyer, January 24, 1906. A collection of cuttings, as follows: 17167. Amygdalus persica. Peach. From Tung-chow. "(No. 35. ) A large, white peach, considered a fine fruit by the Chinese. Nonmelting flesh. The tree is a very thrifty grower." ( Meyer. ) 17168. Celtis sp. Hackberry. From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 3.) An oramental shade tree, growing in dry, rocky situations; if not too heavily attacked by gall insects is decidedly ornamental. ' ' ( Meyer. ) 17169. CoRYLUs sp. Hazelnut. From Shan-hai-kwan. " (No. 7.) A low shrub found on steep, rocky moun- tain sides. May do well as undershrub beneath tall trees." {Meyer.) 17170. Crataegus sp. Hawthorn, From Chang-li. "(No. 10.) A small-leaved Crataegus growing wild in the mountains around here. It is used as stock for Crataegus pinnatifida. ' ' ( Meyer.) 17171. Crataegus pinnatifida. Hawthorn. From Chang-li. "(No. 9. ) A very large-fruited variety of which seeds were sent to Washington under No. 57a. A remarkable ornamental tree. Is a slow grower, but has large, glossy, dark green leaves, and is loaded in fall with scarlet fruits. In China itself there is not enough of this fruit to supply the demand for making j^reserves." {Meyer.) 17172. Diospyros kaki. Persimmon. From Chang-li. "(No. 4.) A medium sized, seedless persimmon. Seems to be a variety of Diospyros kaki. Fruit globular, 2 inches in diameter, orange color. The trees grow 30 to 40 feet high." {Meyer. ) 17173. Diospyros lotus. Persimmon. From Chang-li. "(No. 50.) A wild persimmon on which the large seedless varieties are grafted; is itself also an ornamental tree." {Meyer. ) 17174. PopuLus sp. Poplar, From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 14.) A very white barked poplar which is extremely cheery in winter landscape on account of its shining white bark. Grows to' a rather large-sized tree, 60 to 80 feet. Well fit for an avenue tree or to be planted in groups in parks." {Meyer.) 17175. PopuLus sp. " Poplar. From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 40. ) A very white barked poplar, growing close to the seashore near Shan-hai-kwan. Probably the same as No. 14 (S. P. I. No. 17174), but its locality close to the sea made it look different." (Meyer.) 17176. Pyrus sp. Pear. From Chang-li. "(No. 36.) A very small pear. The fruits do not grow larger than a small cherry. Fit perhaps as an ornamental tree." {Meyer.) 17177. Pyrus sp. Pear. From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 37. ) A wild pear growing in a rocky ravine." ( Meyer. ) 17178. Pyrus SINENSIS. Pear. From Chang-li. "(No. 39.) A large yellow pear, nonmelting flesh. Can be kept for many months without spoiling. May be of use in crossing with better kinds." '{Meyer.) 106 DECEMBER, TJOO, TO JULY, 1906. 27 17167 to 17181 Continued. 17179. 8ALixsp. Willow. From Shan-hai-kwan. " (No. 49.) A willow which is used to make h^tront; baskets from. The bark of an older tree becomes i)itch black and looks as snch rather cnrious. ' ' ( Meyer. ) 17180. (Undetermined.) From Shan-hai-kwan. " (No. h.) \ plant with long, tierce spines which might make it suitable for a hedge i)lant; grows to be a goo(i-sized tree. [Meyer. ) 17181. Xa.nthoxyh'm sp. Prickly ash. From Shan-hai-kwan. "(No. 12.) Proi)ably not possible to grow from cuttings. Seeds sent to Washington, D. C., under No. lL'5a." (Meyer.) 17182 to 17234. From Hichmond, New South Wales. Rec cipal of the llawkesbury Agricultural College, Grass seeds, as follows: 17182. .\ndropoiu)N sp. 17183. Andropooon .\kfini.s. 17184. Andropogox sericeus. 17185. astrebla elymoides. 17186. astrebla elymoides. 17187. AsTREBLA PECTIN.\TA. 17188. astkebla pectixata. 17189. astrebla triticoides. 17190. astrebla triticoides. 17191. Chloris acicularis. 17192. Chloris ventricosa. 17193. Chloris truncata. 17194. Chloris truncata. 17195. Chrysopogon gryllus. 17196. Deyeuxia forsteri. 17197. DaNTHONIA CARPHOIDES. 17198. DaNTHONIA CARPHOIDES. 17199. DaNTHONIA nervosa. 17200. DaNTHONIA NERVOSA. 17201. DaNTHONIA penicillata. 17202. DANTHONIA penicillata. Broad-leaved form. 17203. DaNTHONIA semiannularis. 17204. Danthoxia penicillata var. A broad-leaved variety. 17205. Danthonia penicillata var. 17206. Danthonia penicillata var. 17207. Danthonia penicillata. 106 eived through ^Ir. H. W. Potts, prin- January 20, 1906. Bluesteni. Coast bluestem. Hairy bluestem. Coarse Mitchell grass. Coarse Mitchell grass. Mitchell grass. Mitchell grass. Mitchell grass. Mitchell grass. Star grass. Windmill grass. Umbrella grass. Umbrella grass. Bent-grass. Oat-grass. Oat-grass. Swamp wallaby. Sw^amp w^allaby. Wallaby grass. Wallaby grass. Wallaby grass. 28 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED. 17182 to 17234 — Continued. 17208. DaNTHONIA PENICILLATA VILLOSA. 17209. Danthonia penicillata. 17210. Danthonia penicillata. 17211. Danthonia semiannularis. 17212. Diplachne fcsca. 17213. Diplachne fusca 17214. Diplachne PEAcocKii. 17215. Eleusine aegyptiaca. 17216. Eragrostis sp. {Frohahly E. Icptostachya.) 17217. Eragrostis brownei. 17218. Eragrostis leptostachya. 17219. Eragrostis pilosa. 17220. Eriochloa polystachya. 17221. Neurachne mitchelliana. 17222. Panicum arachyrachus. 17223. Panicum decompositum. 17224. Panicum flavidum. 17225. Panicum flavidum. 17226. Panicum leucophaeum. 17227. Panicum proluI'um. 17228. Panicum prolutum 17229. PoA caespitosa. 17230. Pollinia fulva. 17231. Pappophorum commune. 17232. Pappophorum commune. 17233. Chaetochloa aurea. 17234. Diplachne dubia. 17235. Aealia cordata. Wallaby grass. Brovrn-flo^vered swamp-grass. Brown-flowered swamp-grass. Crowfoot. Love-grass. Love-grass. ■Weeping- love-g-rass. Early spring-grass. Mulga g-rass. Australian millet. Vandyke grass. Vandyke grass. Cotton g-rass. Tussock poa. Sugar grass. Pappus grass. Pappus grass. Yellow foxtail. Cane-grass. Udo. From Yokohama, Japan. Received through the Yokohama Nursery Corapanv, January 26, 1906. Kan udo. 17236 to 17244. From Buitenzorg, Java. Received through Dr. M. Treub, director of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, January 26, 1906. 17236. Alocasia macrorhiza. Malay name "Senteh." 17237 to 17244. Colocasia antiquorum. Taro. 17237. Variety 72 (grro. Malay name " Kiempoel ietem. " Variety monorhiza atroriridis. Malay name "Talus romah." Y ariety monorhiza scripta. Malay name "Talus soerat." Variety monorhiza nigra. Malay name "Talus lampoeng ietem." nigra. Malay name " Talus lahoen 17238. 17239. 17240. 17241. Variety monorhiza indoeng. ' ' 106 DECEMBER, 1905, TO JULY, 1906. 29 17236 to 17244 Continued. 17242. Variety monorhiza bayabon. Malay name "Talus pandan." 17243. Variety monorltiza hatjabon. Malay nanic "Talus ketan." 17244. y wr'wiy monorhiza bayabon. Malay name "Talus kiara." 17245. Ekodiu.m cygnorum. Stork's-bill or crow's-foot. From Sydney, New South Wales. Presented by the director of the Botanic (hardens through Mr. Walter S. Campbell, director of Agriculture. Keeeived January 2-_', 19()(i. "An annual or biennial herb with procumbent or slightly erect stems extending from 1 ftiot to A feet or more in length. Thi.s i>lant is widely distributed throughout the Australian continent, being found in tlie interior of all the c<)lonies, and in some situations it is moderately i)leutiful. Its free-seeding qualitii-s have rendered it some- what proof against extermination. During the spring and early summer months this i)lant affords a rich succulent herbage, which herbivoia of all descriptions are remarkably fond of. Horses will often leave good herbage to browse upon it. l*as- toralists speak very highly of this jjlant as affording good herl)age while it is in a young state. But when it is ripening